INDUSTRIA 
BOOKLETS 


A.E.PICKARD 


1 


POOLTRT 


ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  SERIES 


%i 


<AikMklKtei*)^i>? 


Industrial  Booklets 


BY 


A.  E.  PICKARD 


Elementary  Industrial  Series 


Webb  Publishing  Company 
st.  paul,  minnesota 

1916 


GIFT  ^  ^ 


Copyright,  1916 

by 

Webb  Publishing  Company 

All  rights  reserved 

W-1 


AGRIC 


.  OEPL  G  <^^^^c<..^C^ai^tiiU-%<^ 


PREFACE 

^^Industrial  Booklets''  is  one  of  the  three  books  of  the 
Elementary  Industrial  Series  for  young  folk.  It  has  been 
prepared  with  a  view  of  helping  to  meet  the  demand  for  more 
definite  material  for  the  industrial  booklet  work  that  is  now 
done  so  generally  in  elementary  grade  and  rural  schools. 
It  is  conceded  that  much  of  the  agricultural  and  industrial 
work  should  be  correlated  with  the  language  and  composi- 
tion lessons,  and  at  least  emphasized,  if  not  taught  entirely 
in  this  manner. 

Of  recent  years  many  interesting  topics  have  been  dis- 
cussed and  booklets  shown  at  the  county  and  state  school 
exhibits.  Much  valuable  and  original  work  has  been  done. 
But  teachers  and  pupils  have  been  handicapped  in  not  having 
at  their  disposal  enough  definite  reference  material.  Stu- 
dents cannot  be  expected  to  make  up  their  own  outlines 
entirely  and  the  teacher  often  does  not  have  the  time  to  help. 

This  little  book  is  really  a  manual  for  the  language  and 
composition  classes,  then,  rather  than  an  industrial  book, 
like  the  other  two  of  the  series.  It  is  intended  for  boys  and 
girls  in  junior  high  schools,  upper  grades,  and  rural  schools, 
and  may  be  used  for  either  oral  or  written  work.  Many 
more  topics  are  suggested  and  outUnes  given  than  can  be 
developed  in  any  one  school.  There  is,  therefore,  oppor- 
tunity to  provide  a  definite  course  for  several  years'  booklet 
work,  taking  a  different  phase  each  year,  and  a  choice  of 
subjects  to  meet  the  local  conditions.  As  a  textbook  in  the 
hands  of  the  pupil  it  will  save  time  and  make  the  booklet 
work  more  definite  and  somewhat  uniform,  although  it  is 
not  necessary  that  all  members  of  the  class  work  out  the 
same  outline. 

Agricultural  booklets  are  now  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  effective  ways  of  studying  agriculture  in  the  rural  and 

5 

445063 


6  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

elementary  schools.  These  are  written  as  language  work, 
on  good  paper  with  pen  and  ink,  and  discuss  an  outline  of 
some  phase  of  agriculture.  Clippings  from  magazines,  cata- 
logs, or  original  drawings  in  ink  or  water  color  are  used  to 
illustrate  the  booklets.  Cover  paper,  or  common  drawing 
paper  tinted  may  be  used  as  covers  for  the  booklets.  A 
great  number  of  suitable  topics  might  be  suggested  for  this 
work,  but  each  school  should  select  a  few  that  are  best 
suited  to  its  own  community. 

Not  more  than  one  booklet  a  month  should  be  attempted 
for  class  work,  although  others  may  be  made  by  individual 
students  and  handed  in  for  extra  credit,  if  the  teacher  so 
directs. 

Finally,  an  exhibit  of  the  booklets  made  during  the  year, 
and  a  program  in  which  some  of  the  booklets  were  read, 
would  be  an  interesting  event  both  to  the  school  and  the 
parents. 

The  teacher  who  is  not  familiar  with  this  kind  of  work 
will  find  suggestions  in  the  author^s  ''Rural  Education" 
where  the  industrial  booklet  idea  is  discussed  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  instructor. 

The  author  acknowledges  that  he  has  used  freely  many 
standard  texts  and  references  in  the  preparation  of  the  out- 
lines, as  well  as  state  and  national  bulletins  from  departments 
of  agriculture.  Some  of  these  are  suggested  in  the  refer- 
ences at  the  close  of  each  outline. 

A.  E.  PICKARD 
July,  1916 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

I    Why  and  How  Booklets  Are  Made 9 

II  Outline  and  Development  of  a  Topic 12 

'Toultry  for  Pleasure  and  Profit." 

III  Agricultural  Booklets 57 

Corn,  Rotation  of  Crops,  Common  Weeds,  Insects, 
Cotton. 

IV  Horticulture  Booklets 84 

Strawberries,  The  Orchard,  Vegetable  Gardens. 

V    Animal  Husbandry  Booklets 99 

Cattle,  Hogs,  Horses,  Birds. 

VI    Home  Economics  Booklets 117 

Flies  and  Their  Control,    Household   Friends  and 
Foes,  Bread  Baking. 

VII    Other  Booklets 128 

Wood  Preservatives  and  Substitutes,   Good  Roads, 
Drainage,  Irrigation  and  Dry  Farming. 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


CHAPTER  I 
WHY  AND  HOW  BOOKLETS  ARE  MADE 

There  is  always  a  strong  desire  among  boys  and  girls 
to  be  able  to  express  freely  and  accurately  in  language 
the  results  of  their  investigation  and  thought. 

Have  you  ever  been  asked  to  tell. or  write  a  story  for  your 
language  or  composition  work?  Of  course,  as  all  other  boys 
and  girls  of  these  classes  have.  Such  work  is  the  very  back- 
bone of  this  important  subject.  Some  students  find  this 
part  of  their  training  very  difficult  and  sometimes  even  dis- 
tasteful, because  too  often  no  definite  directions  are  given. 

This  little  book  presents  a  large  number  of  topics  that 
treat  of  the  industries  of  the  nation.  You  are  sure  to  be 
interested  in  many  of  them.  It  will,  therefore,  be  easy  for 
you  to  express  your  thoughts,  either  orally  or  on  paper,  on 
a  topic  in  which  you  are  interested.  You  can  find  out  from 
references,  or,  better  still,  at  first  hand  in  many  instances, 
the  information  needed  to  discuss  the  outlines.  You  can 
probably  add  to  some  of  the  outlines,  thus  making  your  work 
more  original.  After  you  have  followed  some  of  those  given, 
you  will  be  ready  to  make  your  own  outlines  for  the  other 
topics  suggested  under  each  heading. 

Bulletins  on  the  various  topics  may  be  obtained  by  writ- 
ing the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  your  own  and  neigh- 
boring states,  as  well  as  at  Washington,  D.  C.  Writing  for 
these  will  be  good  practice  for  you  in  your  composition  class, 
and  you  may  obtain  free  a  good  many  valuable  references 
for  your  work. 


10  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

Industrial  booklets  may  be  made  very  attractive.  If 
special  covers  and  fillers  are  not  available  for  this  work,  use 
your  originality  and  ability  to  do  industrial  work  and  make 
your  own  booklet.  Cover  paper,  tinted  cardboard,  white 
cardboard  with  original  design  in  ink  or  water  colors,  or 
even  heavy  wall  paper  are  suggestive  for  the  covers.  These 
may  open  either  way,  but  are  usually  made  tablet  fashion. 
The  cover  may  be  one  or  two  pieces  and  tied  through  the 
filler  at  the  top  with  ribbon  or  some  other  material  that  will 
be  attractive.  Boys  may  prefer  a  wide  colored  shoe  string. 
The  paper  used  for  the  filler  may  be  ruled  or  unruled;  but, 
as  pictures  are  often  pasted  on  the  sheets,  the  unruled  will 
be  neater.  Eight  and  one  half  by  eleven  inches  is  a  conven- 
ient size  for  the  filler  and  the  covers  should  extend  about 
a  half  inch  on  each  side  except  the  top.  If  the  school  does 
not  possess  a  punch,  holes  may  be  made  in  the  filler  and 
cover,  after  the  booklet  has  been  finished,  with  a  sharp 
pocket  knife  or  even  a  twenty  penny  nail,  and  the  fastener 
inserted. 

Pen  and  ink  should  always  be  used  and  the  greatest  care 
taken  in  your  writing.  It  is  really  worth  while  to  take  time 
enough  to  turn  out  a  finished  product — something  of  which 
you  will  be  proud  in  later  years.  So  much  of  your  language 
work  is  of  a  temporary  nature  that  you,  perhaps,  get  careless. 
Use  but  one  side  of  the  paper,  unless  directed  to  do  otherwise, 
as  a  more  pleasing  looking  booklet  will  be  obtained. 

The  illustrations  should  be  original  whenever  it  is  pos- 
sible. Ink,  charcoal,  and  water  colors,  as  well  as  crayola 
may  be  used.  Pictures  may  be  obtained  from  catalogs 
and  other  sources  and  pasted  on  the  paper  as  the  lesson  is 
being  prepared.  They  should  not  be  put  on,  however,  until 
the  subject  matter  has  been  criticised  by  the  teacher  and 
carefully  corrected  by  the  student,  as  your  booklet  must  be 
the  permanent  filing  place  for  only  your  best  work  in  English. 
The  sheets  may  be  filed  away  as  finished  after  each  lesson, 


WHY  AND  HOW  BOOKLETS  'AR£;  MAD'E  11 

or  put  in  some  convenient  place,  and  filed  when  complete, 
as  seems  best  to  the  teacher. 

A  suggestive  booklet  has  been  worked  out  for  your 
guidance.  Study  it  carefully,  and  note  the  outline  from 
which  it  was  written.  Poultry  was  selected  as  the  topic  on 
account  of  its  universal  interest.  It  is  hoped  that  students 
may  become  sufficiently  interested  in  poultry  raising  to 
attempt  at  least  one  branch  of  it,  and  keep  records  of  the 
business  done,  as  suggested  in  another  little  book  of  this 
series — '^Industrial  Work  for  Boys.^' 


Pleasure  ^2w</' Profit 

GRACE  GOODYEAR. 


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Figure  1.     Suggestive  cover  design  and  page  of  booklet  on  poultry. 


CHAPTER  II 
POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT 

OUTLINE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  TOPIC 

1.  The  Poultry  Industry — 

(1)  Distribution — All  parts  of  the  world. 

(2)  Value — Over  half  a  billion  dollars  a  year  in  U.  S. 

(3)  Profitable,  if  properly  handled. 

2.  Poultry  Includes — 

(1)  Fowls — Most  important. 

(2)  Turkeys — Bring  highest  prices. 

(3)  Ducks  and  geese — Foragers. 

(4)  Other  poultry — Not  important  commercially. 

3.  Origin  of  Domesticated  Poultry — 

(1)  Fowls — Wild  jungle  fowl  of  India. 

(2)  Turkeys — From  wild  turkey  of  America. 

(3)  Ducks  and  geese — Native  to  America  and  Europe. 

4.  Housing  of  Poultry — 

(1)  Selection  of  site — Dry  ground,  southern  exposure. 

(2)  Furnishings  movable — Cleaned  easily. 

(3)  Roosts  comfortable — Two  by  fours,  no  cracks. 

(4)  Curtains — For  cold  weather. 

(5)  Ventilation — Muslin  windows,  no  drafts. 

(6)  Floor — Wooden  better  than  cement. 

(7)  Number  together — Generally  not  over  fifty. 

(8)  Sanitation — Clean,  whitewashed,  no  vermin. 

(9)  Nests — Partly  hidden,  comfortable. 

5.  Breeding  Poultry — 

(1)  Pure  bred  stock  most  profitable. 

(2)  Common  stock  improved — 

(a)  By  buying  standard  bred  fowls. 

(b)  By  buying  pure  bred  eggs. 

12 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND   PROFIT  13 

(c)  By  selecting  the  best  stock  for  mating. 

(3)  Care  of  eggs  for  hatching — Must  be  fresh. 

(4)  Hatching  the  eggs — 

(a)  With  hens — In  small  flocks. 

(b)  Incubators — Used  for  large  flocks. 

6.     Feeds  and  Feeding — 

(1)  Grain  feeds — 

(a)  Corn — One  third  of    feed    for    growing    stock, 

nearly  all  corn  for  fattening. 

(b)  Wheat — Screenings,  use  as  scratch  feed. 

(c)  Oats — Hulled,  good  for  laying  hens. 

(d)  Barley — Good  for  fattening. 

(e)  Buckwheat  and  millet — Mixed  with  other  feed. 

(f)  Cracked  mixtures — Good  for  scratch  f^ed. 

(2)  Green  feeds — For  chickens  not  on  range — 

(a)  Sprouted  grains — Oats,  barley,  etc. 

(b)  Clover,  alfalfa. 

(c)  Roots — Mangels,  turnips,  beets  and  cabbage. 

(3)  Grit  and  shells— 

(a)  Lime — For  laying  hens. 

(b)  Coarse  sand  and  gravel. 

(c)  Ground  and  crushed  rock. 

(d)  Oyster  and  other  shells. 

(4)  Meat  feeds— 

(a)  Beef  scraps,  bits  from  the  table,  etc. 

(5)  Wet  and  dry  feeding — 

(a)  Wet  mash  at  noon — Ground  corn  and  oats,  bran, 

shorts. 

(b)  Dry  mash  in  self-feeding  hopper,  same  mixture. 

(6)  Balanced  diet — Work  out  a  balanced  ration. 

7.     Diseases  of  Poultry — 
(1)  Diseases — 

(a)  Gapes — Worms  in  the  windpipe. 


14  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(b)  Cholera — Germ  disease,  contagious. 

(c)  Roup — Cold,  appears  in  winter  and  spring. 

(2)  Pests— 

(a)  Mites — Appear  in  warm  weather,  filthy  house. 

(b)  Lice — Body  and  head. 

(3)  Remedies  and  preventives — 

(a)  Disinfectant  in  water  and  feed. 

(b)  Patent  remedies  applied  with  feather. 

(c)  Kerosene  on  roosts. 

(d)  Fumigate  with  sulphur. 

(e)  Boxes  for  dust  baths. 

8.  Eggs— 

(1)  Gathered  daily  and  kept  clean. 

(2)  Market  often  in  warm  weather. 

(3)  Laws  for  protecting  the  public. 

(4)  Records — Get  sheets  from  experiment  station. 

(5)  Sell  only  uniform  size. 

9.  Marketing — 

(1)  Eggs — See  above. 

(2)  Poultry— 

(a)  Alive — Shipped  in  crates. 

(b)  Dressed — Local  and  city  markets. 

(c)  Breeds  best  adapted. 
10.     Standard  Bred  Poultry — 

(1)  Term  means  pure  bred  stock. 

(2)  American  Poultry  Association  determines  standards. 

(3)  Poultry  shows  and  exhibitions. 
n.     Meat  Breeds— 

(1)  Brahmas — Light  and  dark — 

(a)  Weight — Nine  to  twelve  pounds. 

(b)  Meat  rather  coarse. 

(2)  Cochins — Black,  White  and  Partridge — 

(a)  Weight — nearly  as  large  as  Brahmas. 

(b)  Feathered  legs. 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND   PROFIT  15 

(3)  Langshans — Black  and  White — 

(a)  Smaller  and  more  active  than  the  others. 

12.  Egg  Breeds— 

(1)  Leghorn — Several  varieties,  Single  and  Rose-comb — 

(a)  Native  of  Italy. 

(b)  Active — Great  layers,  hard  to  fatten. 

(2)  Minorca — Black,  White,  Single  and  Rose-comb — 

(a)  Native  island  of  Minorca. 

(b)  Large  eggs. 

(3)  Hamburgs — Several  varieties — 

(a)  Active — Small  eggs. 

(b)  Native  of  Germany. 

(4)  Andalusians — Bluish  black  color — 
(a)  Not  so  common  as  the  others. 

13.  General  Purpose  Breeds — 

(1)  Plymouth  Rock — A  great  favorite — 

(a)  Originated  in  Massachusetts. 

(b)  Barred,  White,  Buff,  Partridge,  Silver-penciled. 

(c)  All  single  combs. 

(2)  Wyandotte — A  little  smaller  than  the  Rocks — 

(a)  American  breed. 

(b)  White,  Silver-laced,  Golden,  Buff,  Black,  Part- 

ridge, and  Silver-penciled. 

(3)  Orpington — Large,  plump  chicken — 

(a)  English  breed. 

(b)  White,  Black,  Buff,  Jubilee. 

(4)  Rhode  Island  Red — Meat  excellent  flavor — 

(a)  Cross  from  all  known  varieties. 

(b)  Rose  and  single  comb  varieties. 

(5)  Other  breeds  for  general  purpose — 

(a)  Java — Black  and  Mottled. 

(b)  Dominique — Resemble  Plymouth  Rock. 

(c)  Dorking — White,  Silver  Gray,  Colored. 


16  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(d)  Houdan — French  breed,  crest  on  head. 

(e)  Cornish — Meat  excellent  flavor. 

14.  Fancy  Breeds — 

(1)  Ornamental,  not  practical. 

(2)  Kinds — Game,  Polish,  Sultan,  Silky,  Bantam. 

15.  Ducks — 

(1)  Pekin — Perhaps  the  most  popular — 

(a)  Originated  in  China. 

(b)  Good  for  meat  and  eggs. 

(2)  Rouen — Resembles  the  wild  mallard — 

(a)  Originated  in  England. 

(b)  General  purpose. 

(3)  Aylesbury — Larger  than  Pekin — 

(a)  Originated  in  England. 

(b)  Meat  variety  chiefly. 

(4)  Indian  Runner — Small,  erect  posture — 

(a)  Called  Leghorn  of  the  duck  family. 

(b)  Great  egg  producer. 

(5)  Black  Cayuga — Dark  color — 

(a)  Originated  in  America. 

(b)  General  purpose. 

(6)  Muscovy — Hiss,  rather  than  quack — 

(a)  Originated  in  South  America. 

(b)  Do  not  resemble  other  breeds. 

(c)  Meat  delicious  in  flavor. 

(d)  Male  very  large,  female  small. 

(e)  Fine  layers,  and  good  sitters. 

16.  Geese — 

(1)  Toulouse — Very  large,  gray,  have  paunch. 

(2)  Embden — White,  develop  early. 

(3)  African — Finer  grained  flesh  than  others. 

(4)  Chinese — Small,  not  profitable  for  farm. 


POULTRY   FOR  PLEASURE  AND   PROFIT  17 

17.     Turkeys — 

(1)  Origin — All  from  American  wild  turkey. 

(2)  Breeds— 

(a)  Bronze — Largest,  most  popular. 

(b)  Narragansett — Gray,  quiet. 

(c)  White  Holland — Lays  well,  quiet. 

(d)  Others — Buff,  Slate,  Black,  Bourbon  Red. 

REFERENCES 

Progressive  Poultry  Culture  by  Brigham,  Productive  Poultry 
Husbandry  by  Lewis,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture  by 
Robinson,  Farm  Poultry  by  Watson,  and  Poultry  Production  by 
Lippincott. 

THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY 

That  poultry  raising  has  become  one  of  the  leading 
industries  of  the  country  is  not  recognized  by  the  average 
person,  because  poultry  is  a  ' 'side-issue' '  on  most  farms. 
One  of  the  recent  year  books  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture states  that  over  twenty  billion  eggs  are  produced  annu- 
ally. The  total  value  of  poultry  products  in  the  United 
States  is  over  one  half  of  a  billion  dollars,  and  they  rank 
next  to  cattle  and  horses  in  live  stock.  This  is  more  than  the 
annual  output  of  all  our  precious  metals  and  coal  and  iron. 

There  is  a  large  demand  for  eggs  in  the  industries,  as 
creameries,  candy  making  establishments,  bakeries,  etc.,  and 
yet  they  are  more  and  more  taking  the  place  of  meat  on  the 
table,  as  that  food  becomes  higher  in  price.  At  the  time 
of  the  recent  reduction  in  the  tariff  it  was  predicted  that 
eggs  would  be  shipped  into  the  United  States  from  other 
countries,  especially  China,  and  that  the  markets  would  be 
glutted ;  but  the  average  demand  for  domestic  eggs  continues 
to  be  strong  and  prices  have  been  good. 

2— 


18  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

A  small  amount  of  capital  is  needed  to  establish  a  poultry 
business.  Another  advantage  is  the  small  area  needed  for 
poultry  raising.  When  a  small  or  large  flock  is  kept,  the 
profit  may  often  be  increased  by  adding  standard  bred  stock 
so  that  sales  of  breeding  stock  and  eggs  for  hatching  can  be 
made  at  good  prices.  A  reputation  must  be  made  by  exhib- 
iting and  advertising,  and,  although  the  profit  is  often 
very  large  when  the  trade  is  developed,  for  the  first  season, 
at  least,  it  must  be  obtained  principally  from  the  sale  of 
table  poultry  and  eggs.  If  the  flock  is  kept  in  town  and 
the  feed  has  to  be  purchased,  a  greater  proportionate  capital 
will  be  required  than  if  it  can  be  kept  on  a  farm  where 
it  can  be  given  range,  and  can  feed  largely  on  what  would 
otherwise  be  wasted.  The  value  of  such  a  flock  in  destroy- 
ing insects  on  the  farm  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
Poultry  raising  for  meat  products  will  require  more  space 
and  also  more  capital,  as  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  artificial 
incubation.  The  prospective  poultryman  should  decide 
which  branch  of  the  industry  he  prefers  and  emphasize  that 
in  order  to  make  it  a  success. 

Poultry  includes  fowls,  turkeys,  ducks,  geese,  pheasants, 
pigeons,  guinea  and  pea-fowl.  Fowls  are  the  most  import- 
ant, but  duck  raising  is  a  very  important  industry  in 
some  sections  of  the  country,  not  alone  for  meat  but  for 
eggs.  Turkeys  bring  the  highest  prices  and  the  demand 
usually  exceeds  the  supply.  Ducks  and  geese  are  foragers 
and,  if  allowed  free  range,  will  practically  pick  their  own 
living  in  summer  except  during  the  early  growth  and  fat- 
tening periods.  Pigeon,  or  squab,  raising  may  be  made 
profitable  near  the  larger  centers  where  there  is  a  demand 
for  these  birds,  but  the  industry  is  not  general  as  yet. 
Other  fowls  are  not  important  commercially. 

ORIGIN 

All  our  fowls  are  said  to  have  originated  from  the  wild 
jungle  fowl  of  India.    Because  poultrymen  have  studied  their 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND   PROFIT  19 

breeding,  a  great  number  of  different  varieties  has  been  pro- 
duced. There  are  over  one  hundred  in  this  country  alone. 
A  standard  variety  is  one  recognized  by  the  American 
Poultry  Association.  Our  turkeys  have  all  originated  from 
the  American  turkey  which  is  almost  extinct.  All  varieties 
of  ducks,  except  the  muscovy,  are  believed  by  some  author- 
ities to  be  descended  from  the  wild  mallard.  Most  of  our 
domestic  ducks  originated  in  Europe,  although  China  is  the 
greatest  duck  producing  nation  in  the  world.  The  muscovy 
duck  is  distinct  from  the  others  and  is  thought  to  have 
originated  from  a  wild  water  fowl  in  Peru.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Canadian  wild  goose,  which  is  now  domesticated, 
our  geese  have  all  come  from  Europe  and  Asia. 

HOUSING 

The  housing  of  poultry  is  a  subject  for  careful  considera- 
tion for  the  prospective  poultryman.  Even  the  small  flock 
of  the  average  homestead  would  do  much  better  if  better 
provision  were  made  for  keeping  the  poultry  dry  and  healthy. 
If  possible,  select  a  sandy  knoll  for  the  house  and  yards.     If 


Figure  2.     Concrete  poultry  house. 


20 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


these  must  be  located  on  heavy  soil,  it  should  be  thoroughly 
underdrained,  and  kept  as  porous  as  possible.  While  these 
conditions  are  ideal,  it  is  possible,  of  course,  to  raise  poultry 
successfully  under  other  conditions. 

Poultry  authorities  usually  give  at  least  three  things  to 
be  considered  in  arranging  the  houses  and  yards — first  and 
foremost,  the  health  of  poultry;  second,  freedom  from  vermin 
and  other  enemies  such  as  rats  and  other  animals;  and  third, 
convenient  arrangement  of  buildings  and  yards. 

The  health  of  the  poultry  cannot  be  safeguarded  in  a 
damp,  dark  house.  Windows  should  be  arranged  along  the 
south  and  east  sides  so  that  the  morning  and  noonday  sun 
is  available.  This  is  especially  important  for  the  winter 
months  when  the  fowls  are  indoors  a  great  deal.  Wooden 
floors  are  better  than  cement,  as  they  are  warmer.  Hens 
will  not  lay,  if  their  feet  are  allowed  to  get  cold.  The  floor, 
of  whatever  it  may  be  made,  should  be  covered  with  litter, 
which,  if  sufficient,  helps  to  remove  the  objection  to  cement. 
The  floor  should  be  high  enough  from  the  ground  to  allow  a 
circulation  of  air  underneath.  Protection  from  winter  blasts 
may  be  secured  by  banking  or  with  tar  paper.     A   southern 


M 

Figure  3.     Wooden  poultry  house. 


POULTRY  FOR   PLEASURE  AND   PROFIT 


21 


exposure  is  always  best  for  the  yards,  as  it  is  warmer  in 
winter  and  dryer  in  the  early  spring.  The  yards  should  be 
shaded  during  the  warm  summer  months,  especially  when 
fowls  do  not  have  free  range.  Fruit  trees  and  shrubs  make 
good  shade  and  attract  numerous  insects  which  will  afford 
excellent  animal  food  for  the  poultry. 

Poultry  house  furnishings  should  all  be  movable  so  they 
may  easily  be  taken  out  in  the  sun  and  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  disinfected. 

The  roosts  should  be  comfortable.     Small,  round  poles 

to  which  the  fowls 
must  cling  all  night 
long  are  not  con- 
ducive to  rest  and 
comfort.  Two-by- 
fours,  planed 
smooth,  to  prevent 
hiding  places  for 
vermin,  and  set  on 
edge,  make  good 
roosts.  They  should 
not  be  placed  too 
close  together.  Cur- 
tains of  some  cheap 
material  may  be 

Figure  4.     Showing  dropping  board  and  lifted  roosts.        g^gp^j^Jcd  f rom  the 

ceiling  just  outside  the  roosts,  so  they  may  be  dropped 
down  over  night  during  severe  weather.  There  is  a  ten- 
dency, however,  to  abandon  these.  If  used,  they  should  be 
removed  in  the  early  spring  and  kept  clean  and  free  from* 
pests.  Special  ventilators  for  cold  weather  must  be  pro- 
vided as  well  as  muslin  over  the  open  windows.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  ventilate,  even  with  ventilators,  without  heat.  A 
straw  loft  and  an  open-front  scratching-shed  are,  perhaps, 
the  best  solution  of  this  problem.      It  is  as  necessary  to 


22  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

provide  plenty  of  fresh  air  for  poultry  as  for  children,  if 
they  are  to  be  healthy. 

Vermin  may  be  exterminated  by  painting  the  roosts  and 
nests  with  some  coal  tar  product.  The  interior  of  the  build- 
ing should  be  whitewashed  at  regular  intervals  and  the 
roosts  and  nests  kept  clean  and  disinfected.  Lice  from  the 
body  of  the  fowl  may  be  best  removed  by  the  thorough 
application  of  a  good  insect  powder.  Kerosene  dips  are 
dangerous  and  likely  to  injure  the  fowl  or  chick.  It  is 
especially  important  to  keep  lice  from  the  chicks.  Rats, 
skunks  and  other  enemies  may  be  prevented  from  entering 
the  house,  if  close  wire  netting  is  placed  below  the  sills  or 
under  the  floor  at  the  time  of  construction.  Crows  and 
hawks  can  be  kept  from  chicks  by  covering  the  yards  with 
woven  wire.  Poisons  are  sometimes  employed  in  ridding 
poultry  houses  of  animals,  but  it  is  dangerous  to  the  poul- 
try and  must  be  used  with  great  care. 

Convenience  of  arrangement  of  houses  and  yards  is  most 
important,  if  more  than  a  very  small  flock  is  maintained. 
While  the  care  of  poultry  is  not  heavy  work,  it  is  regular 
work  and  constant  attention  is  necessary.  Labor  saving 
devices  and  arrangement  of  furnishings  and  doors,  so  that 
steps  may  be  saved  in  caring  for  the  poultry  are  essential. 
Where  more  than  one  house  and  yard  are  necessary,  they 
should  be  so  arranged  that  the  caretaker  may  pass  from  one 
to  another  conveniently.  A  door  at  each  end  of  each  house 
is  suggested,  as  admittance  to  the  houses  without  passing 
through  the  yards  will  save  time.  A  door  at  the  west,  how- 
ever, subjects  the  building  to  greater  exposure. 

In  the  construction  of  poultry  houses  several  things  must 
be  considered.  The  house  must  be  warm,  light,  well  venti- 
lated. As  many  as  five  hundred  fowls  are  kept  in  one 
undivided  house  on  some  of  the  large  egg  farms,  but  usually 
better  results  are  obtained  where  fewer  are  kept  together. 
Where  eggs  are  the  principal  requirement,   not  less  than 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT  23 

fifty  should  be  kept  in  one  house  or  compartment,  if  econ- 
omy of  labor  is  considered.  For  breeding  purposes  not  more 
than  twelve  should  be  housed  in  one  house  or  compartment. 
The  number  of  square  feet  of  floor  space  to  be  allowed  each 
fowl  in  the  house  depends  considerably  on  the  size  of  the 
house  or  compartment.  The  larger  the  compartment,  the 
less  the  number  of  square  feet  of  floor  space  that  each  fowl 
must  be  allowed,  because  in  a  larger  house  the  distances 
from  one  extremity  to  the  other  are  greater  and  afford  more 
opportunity  for  exercise.     At  least  six  square  feet  per  fowl 


Figure  5.     Poultry  house  with  yards. 

in  a  small  house  and  four  in  a  large  house  should  be  allowed. 
For  housing  breeding  pens  of  fowls,  long  houses  are  divided 
into  compartments  by  partitions.  The  materials  to  be  used 
will  depend  upon  the  locality.  What  is  expensive  in  one 
place  may  be  relatively  cheap  in  another.  The  size  of  the 
building  will  depend  not  only  upon  the  number  of  fowls  to 
be  housed  in  it,  but  also  upon  the  climatic  conditions.  A 
larger  house  is  needed  in  cold  latitudes  where  the  poultry 
must  remain  indoors  a  great  deal.  Watson,  in  his  ^Tarm 
Poultry' '  gives  an  excellent  description  of  how  to  construct 
poultry  houses.     He  advises  a  permanent   foundation   of 


24 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


W! 


\irrf< 


ROOSW^ 


N^s>it^ 


NEST*, 


;w 


<5c/iArcff  cSmed 


Poultry  NErrr/^C 


Figure  6.     Plan  of  poultry  house.      Nests  in  scratching  shed  are  not  used 
in  cold  weather. 

brick,  stone  or  cement.  Free  circulation  of  air  under  the 
floor  should  be  provided  by  openings  in  the  foundation. 
This  will  prevent  what  is  known  as  ^'dry  rot.''  Narrow 
trenches  should  be  dug  below  the  frost  line,  and  lined  with 
old  boards  to  hold  cobblestones,  gravel  and  cement.  The 
latter  may  be  made  thin  enough  to  pour  over  the  stones. 
The  wall  should  be  built  high  enough  above  ground  to  keep 
the  floor  from  becoming  damp. 

The  walls  of  the  poultry  house  may  be  solid  or  hollow, 
as  desired.  The  hollow  wall  is  desirable  for  colder  lati- 
tudes, as  the  dead  air  space  keeps  out  the  cold.  It  also 
prevents  frost  from  accumulating  on  the  inside  of  the  walls, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  solid  walls.  On  the  other  hand,  hollow 
walls  prevent  the  warming  of  houses  by  the  sun  in  winter, 
although  they  are  cooler  in  hot  weather.  Solid  walls  may 
be  built  of  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  boards.  Rough  lum- 
ber may  be  used,  if  necessary,  for  economy;  but  matched 
lumber  is  better.  These  boards  should  be  put  on  up  and 
down  rather  than  sidewise,  as  they  can  easily  be  fastened 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT  25 

to  the  sill  on  the  foundation  and  the  plate  at  the  top.  The 
sill  may  be  made  of  a  two-by-six  scantling  and  the  plate 
of  a  two-by-four.  If  only  one  thickness  of  lumber  is  used, 
the  cracks  should  be  well  covered  with  battens  of  narrow 
strips  of  board  or  with  lath.  Heavy  building  paper  or  tar 
paper  may  be  used  to  line  the  walls  of  a  poultry  house,  but 
it  is  usually  regarded  better  to  place  this  material  on  the 
outside  of  the  boarding,  between  that  and  the  siding.  If 
used  inside  the  wall,  it  is  likely  to  become  torn  and  it  does 
not  furnish  so  good  a  surface  for  whitewashing  as  wood. 
If  double  boards  are  to  be  used  for  the  solid  walls,  the  others 
are  fastened  on  the  inside  over  the  paper.  The  hollow  wall 
is  built  in  the  same  manner  as  the  solid  except  that  the  inner 
boards  are  fastened  to  the  other  side  of  the  plate  and  to  a 
strip  on  the  sill  leaving  a  two  or  three-inch  dead  air  space 
between  the  two  layers  of  boards.  The  cost  is  about  the 
same  as  for  a  double  thickness  of  solid  walls. 

Roofs  are  made  of  various  kinds  of  building  material, 
but  wood  is  most  popular.  Metal  roofs  have  not  been 
favorably  received  by  poultry  keepers,  but  good  prepared 
roofings  are  used  on  a  majority  of  poultry  houses  in  this 
country,  not  only  on  the  roofs,  but  on  the  sides.  These 
roofings  are  comparatively  inexpensive,  are  reasonably  dur- 
able and  are  easily  put  on.  The  shed  roof  or  *  ^lean-to''  is 
commonly  used  and  is  cheaper  than  the  gable  roof.  Build- 
ing paper  should  be  carefully  laid  to  exclude  all  drafts,  as 
poultry  often  take  cold  while  on  the  roosts. 
BREEDING 

Poultry  breeding  has  long  since  become  a  scientific  indus- 
try in  America.  The  tremendous  commercial  industry  that 
has  been  built  up  has  been  fostered  and  stimulated  by  the 
poultry  fanciers,  who  have  developed  the  old  breeds  and 
originated  the  new.  As  with  all  other  animals,  it  is  most 
profitable  to  keep  only  pure  bred  stock.  Such  poultry  cost 
no  more  to  keep  and  are  more  productive  and  salable. 


26 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


The  common  '^scrub''  stock  can  easily  be  improved. 
While  it  may  be  desirable  to  start  with  pure  bred  poultry, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  pay  from  ten  to  twenty-five  dollars  for 
a  setting  of  fancy  eggs.  It  is  better  business  policy  to  buy 
some  good,  but  medium  priced,  stock  and  build  one's  own 
flock.  This  may  be  done  by  buying  standard  bred  males 
or  just  a  hen  and  selecting  only  the  best  stock  for  mating. 
A  few  pure  bred  hens  from  which  the  eggs  are  selected  will 
soon  produce  enough  standard  stock  to  enable  the  owner 
to  dispose  of  the  others  and  keep  only  the  pure  bred. 

Eggs  for  hatching  should  be  selected  and  carefully  han- 
dled until  used.  Fresh  eggs  not  more  than  a  week  old  are 
necessary  for  best  results.  Eggs  laid  in  the  spring  are  more 
likely  to  be  fertile,  as  this  is  the  natural  mating  season. 
The  stock  should  be  carefully  selected  and  the  eggs  for  hatch- 
ing taken  only  from  the  breeding  pens.  The  hens  must  be 
fed  special  rations  of  grain,  green  food  and  meat  scraps  for 
best  results.  Special  egg  carriers  now  make  it  possible  to 
ship  sittings  long  distances,  but  they  are  not  likely  to  be  as 
good  as  those  ob- 
tained nearby  that 
have  not  been  shak- 
en up  in  transit.  This 
is  the  experience  of 
almost  every  one  who 
has  purchased  im- 
ported stock. 

Hatching  is  done 
by  natural  and  by 
artificial  means.  The 
former  is  still  used 
largely  for  fancy 
stock  and  by  small 
raisers  whose  flock 

does  not   exceed    one  ^^^^'^^-     a  modem  incubator. 

Courtesy  Capital  Incubator  Co. 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT  27 

hundred  fowls.  Artificial  hatching  by  means  of  incubators 
is  the  only  practical  way  to  produce  large  flocks.  The  his- 
tory of  artificial  incubation  is  interesting.  The  ancients  are 
said  to  have  made  use  of  it,  and  the  remains  of  ovens  used 
for  hatching  are  still  seen  in  some  parts  of  Egypt.  During  the 
last  twenty-five  years  many  different  incubators  have  ap- 
peared. A  closer  study  of  the  natural  methods  of  incuba- 
tion has  enabled  the  inventors  to  produce  a  more  perfect 
machine. 

Incubators  vary  in  size  from  capacity  for  fifty  eggs  to 
several  thousand.  The  latter  are  special  machines  for  large 
poultry  ranches.  Some  are  heated  with  hot  air  and  some 
with  hot  water,  but  all  are  built  on  the  general  principle  of 
having  a  circulation  of  warm  air  above  the  eggs  causing 
them  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  from  one  hundred  to 
one  hundred  and  three  degrees  Fahrenheit,  as  in  natural 
incubation.  One  of  the  best  places  to  operate  the  incu- 
bator is  in  a  dry,  well  ventilated  cellar.  One  of  the  principal 
points  for  consideration  is  even  temperature,  and  this  the 
cellar  has. 

An  amateur  should  study  the  directions  that  go  with 
the  incubator  before  attempting  to  run  it.  After  each 
hatching  the  machine  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
given  a  sun  bath.  The  parts  should  be  inspected  and  the 
lamp  kept  clean.  While  advertisements  often  state  how 
simply  an  incubator  may  be  operated,  it  must  be  remembered 

that  constant 
watchfulness  and 
patience  are  neces- 
sary to  success.  A 
machine  will  not 
run  itself.  The  lamp 
must  be  kept  clean 
and  filled  at  regular 

Figures.     Indoor  brooder.  intprvfll^^     nrpfpr- 

Courtesy  Capital  Incubator  Co.      A  Al  t  C  1   V  d  1  C5,    pi  CI  CI 


28 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  9. 


Outdoor  brooder. 

Courtesy  Capital  Incubator  Co. 


ably  once  a  day.  No  drafts 
must  be  allowed  to  interfere 
with  a  steady  flame.  The 
temperature  may  be  kept 
constant  by  using  the  ther- 
mometer above  the  eggs  as 
a  guide.  These  readings 
should  be  taken  twice  a  day. 
Turning  the  eggs  is  very 
necessary  both  to  change 
the  position  of  the  germ 
and  to  supply  the  growing 
embryo  with  sufficient  oxy- 
gen. The  following  rule  for 
turning  is  from  ^Troduc- 

tive  Poultry  Husbandry^'  by  Lewis:  '^Begin  turning  on  the 
evening  of  the  third  day,  continue  this  process  each  day, 
morning  and  evening,  until  the  evening  of  the  eighteenth 
or  nineteenth  day,  or  until  the  eggs  show  signs  of  pipping. 
Then  prepare  the  machine  for  hatching,  and  do  not  remove 
the  tray  for  any  purpose."  Cooling  the  eggs  is  also  neces- 
sary. During  the  first  part  of  incubation,  the  time  taken 
for  turning  the  eggs  will  be  sufficient  for  cooHng  them,  but 
later  more  time  should  be  given.  The  time  should  always 
be  governed  by  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air  and 
at  no  time  should  they  be  cooled  long  enough  so  that  they 
are  not  warm  to  the  touch. 

Brooders  are  necessary  where  incubators  are  used,  un- 
less a  very  warm  place  is  otherwise  provided  for  the  young 
birds.  Homemade  brooders  are  sometimes  satisfactory,  but 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  they  call  for  a  proper  distribution 
of  heat  and  provision  for  a  forced  ventilation  with  pure 
warmed  air,  a  good  brooder  is  often  more  expensive  to  make 
at  home  than  it  is  to  buy  in  the  open  market.  If  early 
chicks  are  not  an  object,  there  is  not  the  necessity  for  the 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND   PROFIT  29 

brooder  there  otherwise  would  be,  and  the  homemade  variety 
might  serve  the  purpose  later  in  the  season.  Where  hatch- 
ing is  done  on  a  large  scale,  brooder  houses  are  constructed. 
These  may  be  either  permanent  or  portable.  Some  poultry 
houses  provide  for  brooders  at  the  back  of  the  breeding 
pens;  but,  if  any  germs  of  disease  should  be  about  the 
poultry  house,  the  chicks  would  fall  an  easy  prey  to  them. 
It  would  be  safer,  therefore,  to  keep  them  apart.  Chickens 
should  be  transferred  from  the  incubator  to  the  brooder  as 
quickly  as  possible  to  prevent  chilling,  but  should  not  be 
taken  from  the  incubator  until  at  least  24  hours  old.  Start 
the  brooder  at  a  temperature  of  about  ninety-five  degrees 
and  gradually  lower  it  to  eighty-five  at  about  the  second 
week. 

FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

The  proper  feeding  of  poultry  is  one  of  the  requisites 
for  success  in  this  industry.  Chicks  need  particular 
attention  and  special  directions  for  feeding  as  found  in 
standard  poultry  books  should  be  followed.  Ducks  and 
geese  need  more  mash  and  soft  feeds  than  fowls  and 
turkeys.  Young  poultry  should  be  fed  several  times  daily. 
Three  times  is  sufficient  for  others.  Feeds  may  be  classified 
as  grains,  green  feeds,  grit,  meat  feeds,  and  mashes. 

Grains  are  used  chiefly  as  scratch  feeds  and  should  be 
fed  in  the  morning  in  a  deep  litter  so  that  the  hens  will  get 
plenty  of  exercise.  Com  may  also  be  fed  at  night  in  cold 
weather  as  it  produces  more  heat  than  the  other  feeds. 
Corn  should  constitute  about  one  third  of  the  feed  for  grow- 
ing stock  and  nearly  all  for  fattening.  Good  wheat  screenings 
are  good  for  laying  hens.  Oats  are  excellent  for  poultry 
provided  they  are  heavy  enough  to  indicate  that  they  are 
well  filled  out.  Mere  husks  are  not  satisfactory.  Oats  may 
also  be  sprouted  to  furnish  green  food  during  the  winter. 
Homemade  sprouters  may  be  used  by  applying  heat  to 


30  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

layers  of  grain  between  moist  cloths  or  boxes.  Barley  is 
good  fattening  feed  and  is  often  fed  instead  of  or  with  corn. 
Some  poultry  have  to  learn  to  eat  it.  Buckwheat,  millet 
and  other  seeds  are  sometimes  mixed  in  the  scratch  feed. 
They  are  relished  and  give  variety  to  the  grain  diet. 
Cracked  corn  and  other  grains  are  mixed  for  scratch  feed. 

Green  feeds  are  necessary  for  fowls  not  on  range  and 
very  important  as  part  of  the  winter  diet.  Sprouted  oats 
have  already  been  mentioned.  Barley  is  sometimes  pre- 
pared in  the  same  manner.  Clover,  if  well  cured,  makes 
good  feed,  especially  if  steamed.  Alfalfa  will  be  eaten  and 
relished  by  poultry,  and  should  be  provided  for  winter  use. 
It  may  be  cut  up  and  fed  with  the  mashes,  if  desired.  Roots 
such  as  mangels,  turnips,  beets,  cabbage,  etc.,  make  very 
good  green  food  for  winter  use.  These  may  be  suspended 
from  cords  in  the  pens  and  the  fowls  will  pick  them  as 
needed. 

Grit  and  shells  should  be  available  at  all  times.  Dur- 
ing the  summer  enough  can  probably  be  picked  up  on  the 
range,  but  in  cold  weather  some  form  of  grit  must  be  pro- 
vided. There  should  be  lime  for  laying  hens,  coarse  sand 
and  gravel  for  all,  if  proper  digestion  is  to  take  place.  Com- 
mercial forms  of  grit,  such  as  crushed  and  ground  rock, 
oyster  and  other  shells  may  be  obtained. 

Animal  food  of  some  kind  is  necessary  for  laying  poultry. 
Scraps  can  usually  be  secured  at  the  meat  market  at  reason- 
able prices  in  the  winter  when  they  can  be  saved  for  several 
days  without  spoiling.  Meat  scraps  from  the  table  should 
be  utilized  in  this  way. 

Wet  and  dry  mashes  form  an  important  part  of  the 
rations.  A  good  mixture  for  the  wet  mash  is  ground  corn 
and  oats,  bran  and  shorts  in  about  equal  proportions.  This 
should  be  thoroughly  moistened  but  not  made  too  soft.  It 
should  form  the  noon  meal  together  with  the  green  feeds 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT  31 


Figure  10.     Homemade  self-feeders  and  drinking  fountain. 

and  meat  scraps.  A  dry  mash  of  the  same  mixture  should 
be  kept  constantly  before  the  fowls  in  self-feeding  hoppers. 
These  hoppers  may  be  made  or  purchased  and  hung  on  the 
walls  just  low  enough  for  all  to  reach. 

Clean,  pure  water  must  be  kept  where  the  poultry  can 
get  it  at  all  times.  Water  may  be  kept  from  freezing  in 
winter  and  cool  in  summer  by  putting  a  can  inside  a  box  and 
insulating  it  by  means  of  excelsior  or  some  other  material. 
Such  drinking  fountains  are  convenient  and  sanitary,  and 
may  be  purchased,  if  not  homemade. 

Balanced  rations  are  as  necessary  to  produce  good  layers 
as  they  are  to  insure  good  milk  production.  Many  rations 
have  been  carefully  worked  out  by  experiment  stations  and 
practical  poultrymen.  The  nourishing  parts  of  the  food 
called  nutrients  are  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat.  The 
first  is  the  great  tissue  builder,  while  the  other  two  produce 
the  heat  and  energy.  A  good  ration  must  not  only  produce 
sufficient  nutrients,  but  it  must  have  them  in  the  right  pro- 
portion. This  proportion  of  the  nutrients  in  a  ration  is 
called  the  nutritive  ratio,  and  is  expressed  in  numbers.  The 
protein  is  taken  as  one  and  is  compared  with  the  carbohy- 
drates and  fats  combined.  For  example,  a  ration  of  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  protein  and  seventy-five  pounds  of  carbo- 


32  ^  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

hydrates  and  fats  would  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  one  to  three. 
It  can  easily  be  seen  that,  if  a  ration  contains  more  of  one 
of  the  nutrients  than  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
body  and  the  production  of  eggs,  the  extra  nutrient  would 
be  wasted.  That  is,  part  of  the  feed  is  wasted.  This  is 
exactly  why  a  balanced  ration,  or  one  that  contains  just  the 
right  proportion  of  nutrients  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  body 
and  to  produce  the  eggs  of  the  fowl,  is  both  necessary  and 
economical.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  poultryman  must 
have  a  knowledge  of  the  feeding  value  of  the  feeds  used  in 
order  to  intelligently  make  up  a  balanced  ration.  Ordi- 
nary poultry  raisers  would  do  well  to  follow  well  estab- 
lished rations,  rather  than  attempt  to  make  their  own. 
The  following  are  standard  laying  rations: 

Dry  Mash  Mixture 

Wheat  bran 20  lbs. 

Wheat  middlings 20  lbs. 

Ground  oats 20  lbs. 

Cornmeal 10  lbs. 

Gluten  meal 10  lbs. 

Meat  scraps 10  lbs. 

Alfalfa ..10  lbs. 

Total 100  lbs.     Nutritive  ratio,  1 :  3.02 

Scratch  Feed  Ration 

Wheat 10  lbs. 

Oats  (clipped) 10  lbs. 

Total 20  lbs.      Nutritive  ratio,  1 :  6.6 

Heavy  Meal,  or  Night  Ration 

Cracked  corn 20  lbs. 

Wheat 10  lbs. 

Oats  (clipped) 10  lbs. 

Buckwheat 10  lbs. 

Total 50  lbs.      Nutritive  ratio,  1 :  7.8 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT  33 

The  above  rations  are  most  suitable  for  the  Mediterran- 
ean type.  They  are  too  fattening  for  the  Asiatics,  or,  pos- 
sibly, even  for  the  dual  purpose  fowls. 

POULTRY  DISEASES  AND  PESTS 

^'An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure^^  is 
especially  applicable  to  poultry  raising.  Strong  vitality  in 
the  flock  and  absolute  cleanliness  on  the  part  of  the  care- 
takers are  the  best  prevention  of  disease.  There  should 
be  a  distinction  between  diseased  poultry  and  sick  poultry. 
In  the  former  case  it  is  seldom  advisable  to  attempt  a  cure. 
The  value  of  the  fowl  is  not  worth  the  risk  to  the  rest  of  the 
flock,  except  in  cases  of  very  valuable  stock.  In  this  case 
the  diseased  birds  must  be  segregated  and  treated.  Sick 
fowls  should  receive  prompt  attention,  and  every  poultryman 
would  do  well  to  know  the  symptoms  of  common  ailments 
and  the  anatomy  of  the  fowl  and  the  properties  of  medicine 
as  well  as  its  application. 

Some  of  the  common  diseases  of  poultry  are  as  follows: 
Gapes,  or  worms  in  the  windpipe;  other  respiratory  troubles 
as  roup,  catarrh,  bronchitis,  influenza,  and  pneumonia; 
diseases  of  the  digestive  tract,  as  inflamed  crop,  stomach 
inflammation,  indigestion,  constipation  and  diarrhoea; 
nervous  troubles,  as  heat  prostration,  and  apoplexy;  infec- 
tious diseases,  as  cholera,  diphtheria  and  tuberculosis;  dis- 
eases of  the  liver  and  reproductive  organs,  chicken  pox,  etc. 
The  chief  value  of  knowing  the  symptoms  of  these  common 
diseases  is  that  they  may  be  prevented  in  other  fowls.  A 
thorough  examination  of  the  fowl  will  make  the  poultryman 
familiar  with  the  action  of  the  diseases.  Young  chickens  are 
often  subject  to  white  diarrhoea  and  weak  leg.  Diarrhoea 
is  a  germ  disease  and  should  be  treated  accordingly.  Weak 
leg  may  be  caused  by  strong  feed  and  too  close  confinement. 

A  few  poultry  medicines  should  be  kept  on  hand  in  a 
special  cabinet.    Powdered  catechu  is  used  for  diarrhoea.    It 


34  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

may  also  be  obtained  in  the  liquid  form.  Castor  oil  is 
one  of  the  best  remedies  for  the  early  stages  of  diarrhoea, 
as  well  as  for  crop  disorders.  Give  a  teaspoonful  to  each 
fowl  twice,  with  three  days  between  the  doses.  Epsom 
salts  may  be  fed  in  soft  mashes.  Dissolve  a  heaping  table- 
spoonful  of  the  salts  in  each  pint  of  water  required  to  mix 
the  mash  crumbly,  not  wet.  Cottonseed  oil  is  effective 
for  intestinal  troubles  and  for  hens  that  are  egg  bound. 

Poultry  pests  are  numerous  and  annoying,  but  they  can 
be  exterminated.  There  are  dozens  of  different  forms  of 
parasites  that  may  destroy  young  poultry,  prevent  adults 
from  reaching  their  proper  size  and  check  the  egg  production 
of  layers.  Pests  are,  therefore,  very  important  from  an 
economic  standpoint  and  must  be  given  careful  attention. 
Several  forms  of  mites  are  common.  They  usually  remain  in 
cracks  in  the  roosts  and  nests  during  the  day  and  suck  the 
blood  of  the  poultry  at  night.  Common  kerosene  applied  to 
these  fixtures  will  rid  them  of  this  parasite.  Another  form 
of  mite  burrows  into  the  leg  of  the  fowl  causing  the  familiar 
^^scaly  leg.'^  This  may  be  cured  by  first  washing  the  legs  in 
kerosene,  then  applying  medicated  vasehne  every  day  until 
cured.  Head  and  body  lice  are  the  most  common  poultry 
pests.  A  dust  bath  is  a  good  preventive.  Kerosene  appli- 
cations are  dangerous.  A  good  powder  is  advisable.  Lewis 
gives  the  following  formula  as  effective,  and  it  is  simply  made: 
^Take  three  parts  of  gasoline  and  one  part  of  crude  carbolic 
acid,  ninety  to  ninty-five  per  cent  strength.  Mix  these 
together,  and  stir  in  gradually  enough  plaster  of  Paris  to 
absorb  all  the  moisture,  which  will  usually  be  about  four 
quarts  of  plaster  to  one  quart  of  liquid. '^  This  powder  should 
be  applied  to  the  head  and  body  of  the  fowl.  Mosquitoes 
sometimes  attack  the  combs  and  faces  of  poultry  not  only 
causing  a  loss  of  blood,  but  making  favorable  conditions  for 
infection,  such  as  chicken  pox.  Roundworms  and  tapeworms 
are  often  present  in  the  intestines,  thus  weakening  the  vitality 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND   PROFIT 


35 


of  the  host.    Drugs  to  stupefy  the  parasites  and  castor  oil  to 
expel  them  is  the  treatment. 

EGG  PRODUCTION 

The  value  of  the  eggs  of  poultry  greatly  exceeds  the 
value  of  the  poultry.  Many  breeds  are  maintained  almost 
entirely  for  their  egg  production.  This  production  probably 
depends  upon  the  conformation  of  the  fowl,  that  is,  whether 
or  not  it  is  an  egg  type,  but  also  upon  the  nutritive  value  of 
the  rations  as  already  explained.     Authorities  seem  to  differ 

as  to  what  extent 
type  has  to  do  with 
egg  production,  as 
individual  fowls  of 
almost  all  types  have 
been  good  producers. 
Since  the  egg  is 
built  up  only  from 
the  food  digested,  a 
knowledge  of  the  egg 
composition  will  en- 
able one  to  feed  more 
intelligently.  The 
shell  is  to  protect 
the  soft  parts  of  the 
egg  and  is  produced 
from  the  grit  and 
other  mineral  matter  eaten.  Under  the  shell  are  two  tough 
membranes,  one  adhering  to  the  shell  and  the  other  to  the 
outer  membrane.  Between  these  at  the  large  end  of  the  egg 
is  the  air  sac.  This  air  space  enlarges  during  incubation  and 
gives  the  chick  more  room  for  his  activities  in  getting  out  of 
the  shell.  The  white  of  the  egg  is  almost  pure  albumin  and 
is  made  from  the  protein  in  the  food.  Its  use  is  protection 
to  the  germ,  acting  as  a  cushion  to  prevent  shocks.     It  also 


Figure  11.     Different  types  and  sizes  of  eggs. 


36  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

furnishes  material  for  the  development  of  the  chick.  The 
yolk  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  egg,  since  it  contains 
the  germ,  or  embryo,  and  also  its  nourishment.  It  is  man- 
ufactured from  all  the  food  elements — protein,  carbohy- 
drates, minerals  and  fats. 

Egg  production  has  been  a  matter  of  evolution  both  in 
breeding  and  feeding.  The  original  wild  fowl  laid  only 
enough  eggs  for  one  sitting,  and  it  is  only  the  ingenuity  of 
man  that  has  made  a  commercial  machine  of  a  modern  hen. 
Even  yet  the  average  hen  produces  only  seventy-five  eggs  a 
year,  although  some  hens  have  laid  more  than  three  times 
that  number.  The  Cornell  Experiment  Station  produced 
a  White  Leghorn  that  laid  two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  eggs 
in  one  year,  weighing  nearly  twenty-nine  pounds,  or  exactly 
nine  times  the  weight  of  the  hen.  The  net  profit  was  five 
dollars  and  six  cents, — more  profitable  than  the  average 
acre  of  wheat  or  cow  from  the  dairy  herd.  The  complete 
record  is  worth  studying. 

Weight  of  hen,  lbs 3.2 

Pounds  of  feed  consumed 110.0 

Eggs  laid  in  one  year 257. 

Weight  of  eggs  laid,  lbs ... 28.8 

Cost  of  feed $1.66 

Labor,  and  interest  on  inv 1.00 

Egg  value  at  35c.  a  doz 7.43 

Value  of  manure 29 

Total  credit $7.72 

Total  debit 2.66 

Net  profit $5.06 

This  statement  shows  the  tremendous  possibilities  when 
scientific  methods  are  followed. 

Eggs  should  be  gathered  daily  and  kept  clean  and  fresh. 
It  is  necessary  to  market  them  often  in  warm  weather. 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND   PROFIT  37 

Most  states  now  have  strict  laws  to  protect  the  public  from 
stale  eggs  unfit  for  consumption.  Careful  records  of  eggs 
and  cost  of  production  should  be  kept.  Record  sheets  for 
this  purpose  can  usually  be  obtained  free  from  state  experi- 
ment stations. 

Preservation  of  eggs  should  receive  greater  attention. 
Many  preservatives  have  been  tried  and  various  results  ob- 
tained. One  experiment  station  tried  twenty  different  meth- 
ods at  one  time,  using  twenty  eggs  for  each  preservative. 
After  eight  months  the  results  were  recorded.  These  varied 
from  all  bad  for  those  preserved  in  salt  water  to  all  good  for 
three  of  the  preservatives.  The  three  were  those  varnished 
with  vaseline,  the  ones  preserved  in  limewater,  and  those  put 
into  a  solution  of  water  glass.  The  water  glass  is  regarded  as 
the  best  preservative,  as  varnishing  with  vaseline  takes  too 
much  time,  and  the  limewater  is  likely  to  leave  a  bad  odor  in 
the  eggs.  One  part  of  water  glass  to  ten  parts  of  boiled 
water  is  a  solution  of  sufficient  strength  to  keep  eggs  indefi- 
nitely, if  they  are  covered  with  the  solution  and  kept  in  a 
cool,  dark  place.  Water  glass  (sodium  silicate)  may  be  pur- 
chased at  any  drug  store.  A  large  crock  or  jar  may  be  used, 
and  the  eggs  should  be  *^packed^'  fresh  and  when  they  are  the 
cheapest.     This  is  a  practical  lesson  in  economics. 

A  recent  method  for  preserving  eggs  is  to  sterilize  them 
by  placing  them  momentarily  in  a  neutral  oil  at  a  tempera- 
ture considerably  above  the  boiling  point.  The  heat  solid- 
ifies the  porous  membranes  just  inside  the  shell  and  hermeti- 
cally seals  the  shell  by  the  absorption  of  oil. 

MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY 

Only  clean,  fresh  eggs  of  uniform  size  should  be  marketed. 
Eggs  will  probably  be  sold  by  the  pound  in  the  near  future, 
as  they  should  be.  Many  communities  have  produce  houses 
where  eggs  and  poultry  can  be  marketed  on  a  cash  basis. 
Two  and  three  car  loads  of  eggs  a  week  are  often  shipped 


38  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

during  the  summer  months  from  small  towns  where  the 
poultry  industry  has  been  developed.  It  is  exceedingly  in- 
teresting to  visit  one  of  these  produce  houses  and  watch  the 
operations.  Expert  workmen  test  the  eggs,  sort,  grade  and 
pack  them  into  cases  for  shipping.  There  is  a  better  market 
for  eggs  from  standard  bred  poultry  than  from  scrub  stock, 
because  they  are  uniform  in  color  and  size. 

Poultry  is  marketed  alive  and  dressed.  Most  meat 
markets,  as  well  as  the  produce  houses,  now  prefer  to  get 
them  alive.  It  does  not  pay  the  amateur  to  dress  poultry 
for  the  difference  in  price,  as  the  expert  with  modern  con- 
veniences can  do  this  so  rapidly.  Where  there  is  no  loca] 
market,  the  producer  can  ship  in  crates  to  the  nearest  city, 
where  there  is  always  a  ready  market.  The  meat  and 
general  purpose  breeds  are  the  most  profitable  for  marketing. 
Poultry  should  be  given  strong  rations  and  fattened  rapidly 
for  the  market.  There  is  an  increasing  demand  for  young 
stock  for  fryers  and  broilers,  and  prices  are  always  high  early 
in  the  spring.  Caponizing  is  becoming  more  common  and 
capons  bring  larger  returns  than  ordinary  roasters. 

STANDARD  BRED  POULTRY 

^The  term  ^standard  bred'  covers  the  requirements  of  size, 
shape,  [color]  and  general  conformation  of  body  considered 
necessary  or  useful  for  market  poultry,  and  the  size  and 
weight  of  body  for  egg  productions."  The  American  Poul- 
try Association  determines  these  standards  for  the  different 
breeds,  and  they  are  subject  to  change  as  the  breed  is  per- 
fected. The  present  tendency  is  to  give  less  attention  to 
the  purely  fancy  points  and  emphasize  those  that  are  con- 
ducive to  utility.  Poultry  exhibitions  have  done  a  great  deal 
toward  encouraging  better  stock.  Many  states  now  offer 
aid  to  poultry  associations  and  otherwise  encourage  the 
^^shows.'^  Birds  that  are  to  be  shown  should  be  put  into 
special  training  coops  and  become  familiar  with  show  con- 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND   PROFIT  39 

ditions.  Only  those  that  can  adapt  themselves  to  those 
conditions  and  will  permit  handling  should  be  exhibited. 
The  plumage  must  be  carefully  groomed,  and  all  light 
colored  birds,  at  least,  ought  to  be  washed.  Common  tubs 
may  be  used  for  washing.  In  one  have  warm,  soft  water 
with  suds  of  ivory  soap.  The  bird  should  be  thoroughly 
scrubbed  in  this,  and  rinsed  in  the  next  tub  of  clear  water 
not  so  warm.  A  final  plunge  in  a  tub  of  cool  bluing  water 
will  complete  the  process.  Do  not  get  too  much  bluing  in 
the  water.  The  writer  once  had  an  interesting  experience 
in  this  way,  finding  it  impossible  to  remove  the  azure  tints 
before  the  exhibition.  The  fowls  were  finally  entered  as 
^^Blue  Leghorns^ ^  by  the  amused  secretary  of  the  show,  and 
captured  first  honors  in  that  newly  created  class. 

CLASSIFICATION 

Fowls  are  usually  classified  as  meat  breeds,  egg  breeds, 
general  purpose,  and  fancy  breeds,  according  to  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  usually  raised.  The  meat  breeds  are  the 
large  fowls  raised  for  the  market  or  for  home  consumption. 
They  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  Asiatics,  as  most  of 
them  originated  in  Asia.  They  are  usually  poor  layers  but 
good  sitters,  quiet  and  motherly.  The  larger  American 
breeds,  however,  are  coming  to  be  preferable  for  table  use. 
They  are  quicker  growers. 

Terms  used  in  the  classification  of  poultry  are  class, 
breed  and  variety.  Class  denotes  the  larger  groups,  as 
American  class.  Breed  refers  to  shape  and  form.  Variety 
designates  the  color  of  the  breed.  For  instance,  there  are 
several  varieties  of  Leghorns — White,  Brown,  etc.  All  vari- 
eties should  have  the  shape  of  the  breed. 
MEAT  BREEDS 

The  Brahmas  are  regarded  as  typical  of  the  heavier 
meat  breeds.  Their  origin  is  not  definitely  known,  but  they 
are  usually  classified  as  Asiatics,  although  one  authority 


40 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  12.     Light  Brahmas. 

varieties — the  Light  and  the  Dark 


beUeves  them  to  be  Am- 
erican bred.  The  Brah- 
mas are  the  largest  fowls, 
the  standard  for  the 
Light  Brahma  cock  be- 
ing twelve  pounds  and 
the  hen  should  weigh 
nine  and  one  half  pounds. 
The  comb  of  this  breed 
is  different  from  that  of 
any  other,  and  is  some- 
times called  a  ^'pea- 
comb.''  There  are  two 
The  former  are  fairly 
good  layers.  The  meat  of  the  Brahmas  is  rather  coarse 
and  not  of  as  fine  quality  as  that  of  some  other  breeds. 
The  quality  of  the  meat  of  different  breeds  often  depends, 
however,  on  their  habits  and  feed. 

The  Cochins  were  introduced  into  England  from  China 
and  from  there  into  this  country.  There  are  four  varieties, 
Buff,  Partridge,  White,  and  Black,  the  Buff  being  the  most 
popular.  This  breed  is  noted  for  its  gentleness.  A  great 
amount  of  fluffy  feathers  and  their  '^feathery  legs"  enable 
the  Cochins  to  withstand  a  severe  climate.  They  are  all 
single  comb  varieties. 

The  Langshans  were 
also  introduced  from 
China.  The  quality  of 
the  flesh  ranks  among  the 
best  of  the  meat  breeds, 
and  the  birds  are  more 
active  and  better  layers 
than  the  others  of  this 
type.     They  are  single 

combed,  and  lay  buff  col-  Figure  13.     Partridge  Cochins. 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT 


41 


Figure  14.    Black  Langshan  Cock. 


ored  eggs,  as  the  others  of  the 
type.  There  are  two  varieties — 
the  Black  and  the  White,  the 
former  being  the  more  popular. 
The  Faverolles  are  usually 
classified  with  the  meat  type  al- 
though they  are  not  a  distinct 
breed,  being  crossed  from  Coch- 
ins, Dorkings,  Houdansand  Brah- 
mas.  This  breed  is  not  well 
known  in  America,  but  is  popular 
in  France  where' the  tender  flesh 
of  the  young  broilers  is  relished. 

EGG  BREEDS 

The  breeds  of  this  type  are  medium  in  size,  rather  long 
legged,  vigorous  and  active.  They  are  usually  nervous  and 
easily  frightened,  and  do  much  better  on  range  than  in  con- 
finement. High  fences  are  necessary  for  many  of  them,  as 
they  are  incHned  to  use  their  wings.  Most  of  them  mature 
early  and  for  this  reason  some  are  prized  as  broilers  for 
early  markets.  They  are,  as  a  whole,  poor  sitters.  Those 
of  the  Mediterranean  class  are  all  good  layers.  To  this 
class  belong  the  Leghorn,  Minorca,  Spanish,  Blue  Andalu- 

sian  and  Ancona.  The 
Hamburgs  also  come 
under  the  egg  breeds. 

The  Leghorns  are 
the  most  popular  of  the 
egg  breeds.  They  orig- 
inated in  Italy,  and  now 
include  the  following 
varieties :  Single-comb 
Brown,      Rose-comb 

Figure  15.     Brown  Leghorns.  BrOWU,       Single-COmb 


42 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


White,  Rose-comb  White,  Single-comb  Buff,  Rose-comb 
Buff,  Single-comb  Black,  and  Silver.  The  Leghorns  are 
all  rather  small  in  size,  weighing  from  about  four  to  six 
pounds.  The  White  and  Brown  varieties  are  the  best  lay- 
ers, although  some  of  the  others  are  still  too  young  as 
breeds  to  fully  establish  their  egg  production.  The  White 
Leghorn  lays  a  slightly  larger  egg  than  the  Brown  and  for 
that  reason  is  selected  by  many  poultrymen.  It  seems  best 
to  dispose  of  the  stock  after  the  second  year,  as  hens  usually 
do  not  lay  so  well  after  that  time. 

The  Minorcas  are  the 
largest  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean class  and  were 
introduced  from  the  is- 
land of  Minorca.  There 
are  three  varieties — the 
Single-comb  Black, 
Rose-comb  Black,  and 
Single-comb  White, 
They  are  especially 
stately  looking  birds, 
having  large  combs  and 
wattles.  The  eggs  are 
unusually  large  and 
white,  excellent  for  fancy 
table  use.  While  they 
probably  lay  as  many  pounds  of  eggs  in  a  year  as  the  Leg- 
horns, they  are  not  yet  as  popular  in  this  country,  probably 
on  account  of  the  white  flesh  and  dark  legs.  Yellow  skin- 
ned fowls  are  preferable  for  table  use. 

Blue  Andalusians  have  probably  been  bred  from  the 
Minorcas  and  are  thought  to  have  originated  in  the  province 
of  Andalusia  in  Spain.  They  are  slightly  larger  than  the 
Leghorns  and  very  good  layers.  There  is  but  the  one 
variety  and  it  is  rather  difficult  to  keep  true  to  color  which 


^ 

K^ 

^ 

BJB^^Sf^^H 

1^ 

'Wt 

IP 

y' 

^ 

Figure  16.     Minorcas. 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT 


43 


Figure  17.     Black  Spanish. 


is  bluish  black,  or  slate 
blue.  This  fact,  as  well 
as  the  white  color  of  the 
flesh,  has  prevented  them 
from  becoming  as  popu- 
lar as  the  Leghorns. 

The  Spanish,  or 
White-faced  Black  Spian- 
ish,  was  brought  to  the 
United  States  from  Eng- 
land. While  they  are 
good  layers,  they  have 
not  the  hardy  constitu- 
tion of  the  others  of  this 
class,  the  young  being 
particularly  susceptible 
to  damp  weather.  They 
have  been  bred  for  fancy 
points  and  are  now  sometimes  classed  as  fancy  rather  than 
utility  stock.  The  white  face  and  prominent  ear  lobe, 
with  the  glossy  black  plumage,  make  a  very  distinguished 
looking  bird. 

The  Hamburgs  do  not  belong  to  the  Mediteranean 
class,  but  they  should  be  given  with  the  egg  breeds,  as  they 
are  fine  layers.  They  were  in- 
troduced into  England  probably 
from  North  Germany  and  became 
general  favorites.  All  varieties 
have  rose  combs  with  a  charac- 
teristic spike  at  the  rear.  The 
plumage  is  beautiful.  They  are 
somewhat  smaller  and  lay  smal- 
ler eggs  than  the  Leghorns. 
There  are  six  varieties  of  Ham- 
burgs— Golden-spangled,    Silver-       Figure  is.    Hamburg  Cock. 


44 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


spangled,  Golden-penciled,  Silver-penciled,  White  and  Black. 
The  Red  Caps  are  an  English  breed  of  fine  layers.  They 
are  larger  than  the  Hamburgs  and  have  red  and  black 
plumage.  They  are  purely  utility  stock  and  are  quite 
hardy.     There  is  but  one  variety.     They  have  rose  combs. 

GENERAL  PURPOSE  BREEDS 

These  are  breeds  best  adapted  for  general  utility  pur- 
pose on  the  farm  and  small  yard.  They  are  of  medium  size, 
fairly  good  layers,  with  a  considerable  quantity  and  good 
quality  of  meat.  They,  therefore,  produce  both  eggs  and 
meat  to  suit  the  needs  of  home  consumption.  They  are 
good  foragers  and  may  stand  confinement  better  than  the 
meat  breeds.  They  have  gentle  dispositions,  and  usually 
make  good  sitters  and  brooders.  The  Plymouth  Rocks  and 
Wyandottes  are  by  far  the  most  popular  of  these  breeds 
and  both  are  of  American  origin.  Most  of  the  others  of 
this  type  also  belong  to  the  American  class. 

The  reputation  of  fowls  as  layers  probably  often  depends 

as  much  upon  the  special 
development  of  the  strain 
as  upon  the  breed. 

The  Plymouth  Rocks 
originated  in  Massachu- 
setts about  half  a  cent- 
ury ago  and  have  become 
great  favorites.  They 
are  a  cross  between  the 
Dominique  and  Black 
Java  and  seem  to  have 
inherited  the  good  qual- 
ities of  both.  They  are 
one  of  the  largest  of  the 
general  purpose  type  and 

Figure  19.     White  Plymouth  Rocks.  approach     the     egg    type 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT 


45 


Figure  20.     Rhode  Island  Reds. 


for  egg  production.  The 
flesh  is  a  rich  yellow  and 
good  quality.  The  Rocks 
are  hardy  and  prolific. 
All  have  single  combs. 
The  Barred  Rock  is  the 
best  known  variety  of 
the  Rocks  and  is  popu- 
lar among  fanciers  on 
account  of  the  difficulty 
in  producing  the  proper 
color.  The  White  Rocks 
are  just  as  good  layers, 
individuals  having  laid 
as  high  as  two  hundred 
fifty  eggs  in  a  year,  and 
their  appearance  is  better  when  dressed  for  the  market.  The 
newer  varieties  of  Rocks  are  the  Buff,  Silver-penciled,  Par- 
tridge and  Columbian.  These  are  not  so  well  known  as  yet. 
The  Wyandottes  are  a  newer  breed  than  the  Rocks,  but 
are  a  close  second  in  popularity.  The  object  sought  was 
to  produce  a  blocky,  good  sized  fowl  with  large  breast,  and 
good  laying  qualities.  The  ffesh  is  tender  and  juicy,  and 
the  fowl  is  small-boned.  There  are  several  varieties  as 
follows:  White,  Silver,  Golden,  Buff,  Black,  Partridge, 
Silver-penciled  and  Columbian.  The  White  Wyandottes 
are  the  best  known  variety.     All  have  rose  combs. 

The  Rhode  Island  Reds  are  greatly  prized  for  their  fine 
texture,  excellent  flavor,  and  early  maturity.  They  are 
good  winter  layers.  This  breed  has  but  very  recently  been 
recognized  by  the  American  Poultry  Association,  probably 
on  account  of  the  tendency  to  vary  in  color  as  to  plumage 
and  eggs.  They  are  a  little  smaller  than  the  Rocks  and 
Wyandottes  and  also  more  active.     This  breed  has  been 


46 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  21.     White  Orpingtons, 


developed  b  y  crossing 
all  other  important 
varieties.  The  name  in- 
dicates their  origin. 

The  Orpingtons  origi- 
nated in  England,  but 
have  been  improved  in 
America  until  they  rank 
as  one  of  our  leading 
general  purpose  breeds. 
The  fowls  of  this  breed  are  large,  deep,  full-breasted,  and 
make  excellent  roasters.  Some  of  the  varieties,  especially 
the  White,  are  good  layers.  Buff  and  Black  varieties  are 
also  recognized.     They  have  both  single  and  rose  combs. 

There  are  other  breeds  of  the  general  purpose  type. 
The  Java,  originated  in  America,  and  is  popular  in  some 
sections.  There  are  Black  and  Mottled  varieties.  The 
Dominique  is  one  of  the  oldest   of  the  American  class. 

They  are  hardy  and  have 
the  characteristics  of 
good  general  purpose 
fowls,  somewhat  resem- 
bling the  Rocks,  but 
lighter  in  color.  They 
have  rose  combs.  The 
Dorkings  are  great  fav- 
orites in  England,  and 
are  prized  by  Americans 
for  the  rich  quality  of 
the  flesh  and  small  pro- 
portion of  bone.  They 
lay  well  and  make  good 
utility  stock.  They  have 
„,    T.,   1  ,  five  toes,   or  one  more 

l^igure  22.     Black  Javas. 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT 


47 


than  the  ordinary  fowl.  The 
Houdans  belong  to  the  French 
class  and  are  the  most  important 
of  that  class  in  this  country. 
They  are  characterized  by  the 
crest,  beard,  and  fifth  toe,  which, 
of  course,  are  all  objections  to 
utility  stock.  It  is  sometimes 
difficult  for  them  to  see  on  ac- 
count of  so  many  feathers  about 
the  head.  The  Cornish  are  not 
as  popular  as  formerly,  owing  to  the  fact  that  newer  breeds 
have  surpassed  them  in  both  egg  and  meat  production.  The 
flesh  is  excellent,  but  they  are  not  very  prolific.  They  are 
close  feathei*ed  and  rather  odd  looking.  There  are  three 
varieties — the  Dark,  White,  and  White-laced  Reds. 

FANCY  BREEDS 

These  birds  are  bred  for  exhibition  rather  than  utility 
purposes,  although  some  are  good  layers  and  others  have 
excellent  meat  quality.  The  Games  are  noted  for  their  fine 
flavor.     There  are  several  varieties. 


Figure  23.     Dorking  cock. 


Figure  24.      White-crested   Black 
Polish  cock. 


Figure  25.      White-crested  Black 
Polish  hen. 


48 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


The  Polish  breeds  are  among  the  oldest.  The  name  is 
not  derived  from  Poland,  but  from  the  ^^polP'  or  crest  on 
the  top  of  the  head.  While  the  flesh  is  good,  they  are  no 
longer  raised  as  utility  stock.  The  plumage  is  beautiful. 
Eight  varieties  are  recognized,  but  the  Silver,  Golden,  and 
White-crested  Black  are  the  most  important.  The  Anconas 
are  sometimes  classified  with  the  egg  type,  as  they  are  good 
layers.  Their  plumage  is  beautiful.  The  Sultans  w^ere 
brought  from  Turkey.  They  are  kept  by  fanciers  on 
account  of  their  odd  appearance.  The  crest  resembles  the 
Polish.  They  can  be  made  great  pets  fqjj  children.  The 
Silkies  are  peculiar  in  not  having  their  feathers  webbed,  and 
hence  resemble  large  fluffy  balls.  The  Frizzles  are  raised  on 
account  of  their  peculiar  plumage,  the  feathers  turning  up- 
ward toward  the  head.  Several  varieties  of  rumpless  fowls 
have  been  bred  in  the  Eastern  States.  The  have  no  tails. 
B  antams  are  represented  in  a  large  number  of  varieties,  but 
they  are  show  birds  and  pets  rather  than  utility  stock. 

With  numerous  varieties  and  breeds  of  poultry  it  is 
evident  the  poultryman  should  select  the  kind  he  prefers 
after  deciding  what  branch  of  the  business  he  desires  to 
emphasize.  It  is  best  to  keep  only  one  or  two  varieties  and 
to  be  somewhat  of  a  specialist  in  a  more  limited  field. 


# 

^' 

^^ 

X        ^^P 

T 

M 

r 

"-^ 

%1-V 

Figure  26,     Houdan  cock. 


Figure  27.     Sultan  cock. 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT 


49 


DUCKS 

During  the  last  few  years  duck  raising  has  been  made 
very  profitable  on  duck  farms  conducted  by  speciaHsts. 
Some  farmers  prefer  ducks  to  fowls,  because  they  are 
more  easily  confined  and  do  little  or  no  damage  even  if  on 
the  range.  Even  duck  rearing  for  eggs  is  becoming  popular 
in  sections  where  the  demand  has  made  a  market  for  them. 
The  older  notion  that  a  pond  or  stream  is  necessary  for 
success  has  been  abandoned  and  many  raisers  prefer  no 
more  water  for  ducks  than  for  fowls.  When  forced,  young 
ducks  can  be  prepared  for 
the  market  in  from  eight 
to  twelve  weeks,  making 
the  margin  of  profit 
higher  than  for  fowls. 
All  breeds,  it  is  thought, 
have  been  developed 
from  the  original  source, 
the  wild  Mallard.  As  pre- 
viously noted,  the  Mus- 
covy is  an  exception. 

The  Pekin  is  one  of  the  most  popular  ducks  in  America, 
although  the  Indian  Runners  are  fast  gaining  ground.  It 
originated  in  China,  but  has  been  greatly  improved  in 
America.  It  is  large  and  creamy  white  and  a  great  favorite 
with  the  '^green  duck^'  specialists,  those  who  raise  young 
ducks  for  early  markets,  as  it  matures  quickly  and  can  be 
made  to  weigh  five  or  six  pounds  in  ten  weeks.  The  stand- 
ard weight  for  the  mature  bird  is  seven  or  eight  pounds. 
The  Pekins  are  good  layers,  beginning  as  early  as  February, 
if  well  cared  for,  and  continuing  until  July. 

The  Aylesburys  are  the  popular  white  duck  of  England 
and  rank  next  to  the  Pekins  of  this  country.  They  are  of 
about  the  same  weight  as  the  latter,  although  some  think 
they  are  not  so  prolific.      They  cross  well  with  the  Pekins 


Figure  28.     Pekin  ducks. 

From  Reliable  Poultry  Journal. 


50 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  29. 


Aylesburg  ducks. 

From  Reliable  Poultry  Journal. 


and  produce  a  profitable 
hybrid.  The  white  breeds 
are  more  marketable 
than  the  colored,  as  the 
flesh  is  more  desirable. 

The  Rouen  ducks 
are  most  like  their  an- 
cestors, the  wild  Mallard. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  the  Aylesburys,  and  were 
brought  to  this  country 
from  England .  The  meat 
is  fine  grained  and  of 
excellent  quality.  The 
standard  weight  is  heav- 
ier than  the  Pekins,  but 
the  young  do  not  devel- 
op as  rapidly  and  for 
that  reason  they  are  not 
as  popular  with  large 
producers.  They  are  ex- 
cellent farm  poultry,  as  they  are  tame  and  quiet. 

The  Indian  Runners 
have  recently  become 
very  popular  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  on  account 
of  their  large  egg  pro- 
duction, and  are  some- 
times called  the  ^'Leg- 
horns of  the  duck  fam- 
ily.''  They  are  rather 
small  and  the  carriage  is 
more  erect  than  that  of 
any  other  duck.  They 
Figure  31.    Indian  Runners.  move  about  more  rapidly 


Figure  30.     Rouen  ducks. 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND   PROFIT 


51 


than  other  breeds,  hence  the  name  ^^runners/'  They  do 
not  have  the  characteristic  waddle  of  other  ducks.  It  is 
not  definitely  known  why  the  name  Indian  was  applied, 
as  the  breed  originated  in  Northern  Europe.  There  are 
two  well  known  varieties  in  this  country — the  Fawn  and 
White,  and  the  White.  The  flesh  is  fine  grained  and  sweet; 
but,  on  account  of  its  size,  the  Runner  cannot  compete  with 
the  Pekin  for  table  use,  which  is  still  the  most  profitable 
branch  of  the  duck  industry. 

The  Black  Cayugas  are  named  for  Cayuga  county,  New 
York,  where  it  is  supposed  they  originated.  They  are  a 
deep  black  with  a  lustrous  green  shade.  Of  about  the  same 
size  and  carriage  as  the  Aylesbury,  they  are  a  good  family 
duck,  but  not  popular  for  the  general  market. 

The  Muscovys  are 
peculiar  in  that  they 
do  not  quack,  but  hiss. 
In  one  sense  they  are 
quiet,  that  is,  they  are 
not  noisy  like  the 
quacking  Pekin.  In 
another  sense  they  are 
very  noisy,  as  they  of- 
ten  keep    up  a    great 

Figure  32.     Colored  Muscovy  ducks.  commotioniu      the 

farmyard,  being  rather  pugnacious,  especially  toward  other 
ducks,  and  they  frequently  have  family  quarrels.  The 
slow,  gyrating  body  movements,  elevated  feathers,  and  gut- 
teral  sound  during  these  quarrels  between  the  females  are 
often  very  amusing.  The  Muscovys  were  imported  from 
Peru.  They  are  the  largest  of  the  ducks,  the  drake  some- 
times reaching  fifteen  pounds.  The  ducks  are  much  smaller, 
this  being  a  decided  disadvantage  in  marketing.  The  flesh 
has  a  more  delicate  flavor  than  any  of  the  other  domesticated 
ducks.   They  lay  well,  producing  large,  oval  eggs.    Of  the  two 


52 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


varieties — the  White  and  Colored — the  latter  are  more  popu- 
lar on  account  of  the  beautiful  plumage.  '^In  the  drake 
the  head  is  large,  the  head  being  covered  with  long  crest-hke 
feathers  which  are  elevated  under  excitement.  The  sides 
of  the  head  and  face  are  covered  with  caruncles — the  larger 
the    better.     The    body    is    carried    nearly    horizontally.'^ 

The  Crested  White  ducks  combine  the  fancy  and  utility 
breeds.  The  body  is  round  and  plump.  The  head  is 
adorned  with  a  large  white  crest. 

The  Blue  Swedish  ducks  are  not  as  popular  as  formerly, 
being  smaller  than  the  white  ducks.  The  body  color  is 
steel  blue  and  the  head  a  dark  blue,  having  a  greenish  tint 
in  the  drake.  The  breed  originated  in  Sweden  and  was  im- 
ported from  Germany  to  this  country. 

The  Gray  and  White  Call  ducks,  as  well  as  the  Black 
East  India,  are  the  bantams  of  the  duck  family  and  are  bred 
chiefly  for  ornamental  purposes.  They  are  not  common 
enough  in  most  parts  of  the  country  to  be  generally  known. 

GEESE 

Geese  have  been  domesticated  for  thousands  of  years. 
The  ancient  Greeks  prized  them  highly  and  ^^the  cackling  of 
the  geese  saved  Rome''  from  capture  by  her  enemies.  Virgil 
mentions   both   silver   and   white   varieties.     It   is   within 

comparatively  recent 
years,  however,  that 
geese  have  been  given 
particular  attention  by 
poultrymen.  Geese  are 
not  hard  to  raise  and 
should  be  very  profit- 
able, as  they  can  be 
kept  on  range  until  fat- 
Figure  33.    Toulouse  geese.  tcuing  time  iu  the  late 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT  53 

fall.  They  will  thrive  all  summer  long  in  a  pasture  where 
there  is  sufficient  water.  There  are  six  standard  breeds  recog- 
nized by  the  American  Poultry  Association.  These  are  the 
Toulouse,  Embden,  African,  Chinese,  Canadian  and  Egyptian. 
The  first  two  are  the  only  ones  raised  extensively  for  the  mar- 
ket. Some  poultrymen  feed  a  special  diet  to  enlarge  the  livers 
as  these  are  considered  a  great  delicacy  in  many  markets. 

The  Toulouse,  or  French  Gray,  goose  is  probably  the 
most  popular  of  the  domestic  geese.  It  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  lays  more  eggs  than  the  others.  The  male  and  female 
are  so  much  alike  that  it  is  difficult  for  amateurs  to  dis- 
tinguish the  sexes.  They  are  quiet  and  fatten  easily  in  the 
cool  fall  weather.  They  have  been  made  to  weigh  between 
thirty  and  forty  pounds,  although  this  weight  is  higher 
than  the,  requirements  of  the  Standard  of  Perfection.  The 
Toulouse  is  characterized  by  the  full  gullet  beneath  the 
throat,  the  deep  keel  and  low  paunch,  giving  a  massive 
appearance.  The  light  tips  on  the  ends  of  the  dark  gray 
feathers  give  a  beautiful  appearance. 

The  Embden  is  the  popular 
white  goose  of  this  country.  In 
size  and  shape  it  resembles  the 
Toulouse,  although  the  neck  is  a 
little  longer  and  carried  more  erect. 
...  The  paunch  is  not  so  marked  as 
in  the  Toulouse,  and  English  fan- 
ciers recognize  only  the  smooth 
throat  as  standard.  The  pure 
Figure  34.  Embden  goose.  white  plumage  coutrasts  Well  with 
the  bright  orange  bill  and  feet  and  the  blue  eyes.  They  are 
good  show  birds.  They  sometimes  lay  as  early  as  Feb- 
ruary, laying  larger  eggs  than  the  Toulouse,  but  not  so 
many.      They  are  good  sitters  and  brooders. 

The  African  is  a  gray  goose  of  large  size.  The  large, 
dark  head  is  peculiar  in  having  a  black  knob  just  above  a 


54 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  35.     African  geese, 


Figure  3G.     White  China  geese. 


short,  deep  bill  of  the  same  color.  The  neck  is  rather  long 
and  curved,  and  the  general  carriage  is  more  upright  than 
the  other  large  breeds.  The  Africans  mature  early  and  often 
average  a  pound  a  week  for  the  first  ten  weeks  when  they 
are  put  on  the  market.  For  this  reason  poultrymen  value 
them  as  ^ 'green  geese.'' 

Chinese  geese  have  two  varieties — Brown  and  White. 
They  also  have  knobbed  heads,  but  are  much  smaller  than 
the  Africans.  The  plumage  is  a  light  brown  in  the  one  and 
a  beautiful  white  in  the  other.  On  account  of  their  grace  and 
beauty  this  breed  is  usually  classed  as  ornamental,  although 
the  flesh  is  finer  grained  than  that  of  the  larger  breeds. 

The  Canadian,  or  Wild  Goose,  has  been  domesticated 
from  the  wild  state.  It  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  Chinese 
and  is  raised  by  fanciers,  as  well  as  others  who  prize  its 
delicious  flavor.  They  are  gray  and  black  with  white 
feathers  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  on  the  breast,  and  tips 
of  the  wings.  They  are  swan-like  in  appearance  and  by 
some  are  classed  as  true  swans.  They  cross  with  the  large 
breeds,  but  the  hybrid  cannot  be  bred  further,  hence  it  is 
often  called  the  mule-goose. 


POULTRY  FOR  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT 


55 


The  Egyptians  are  purely  ornamental,  black  and  gray 
in  color,  and  have  thin  arched  necks.  The  many  light  and 
dark  colors,  and  the  graceful  curves  give  them  an  aristo- 
cratic appearance.  Their  ferocious  disposition  makes  them 
somewhat  undesirable  where  they  must  associate  with  other 
fowls. 

TURKEYS 

Our  turkeys  have  all  been  bred  from  the  American  wild 
turkey.  This  large  variety  is  still  found  in  the  mountainous 
and  other  sheltered  parts  of  the  country,  where  it  is  a  living 
example  of  the  law  of  the  ^  ^survival  of  the  fittest. ^^  The 
wild  tendencies  are  still  evident  in  most  of  the  varieties  in 
their  roaming  qualities.  The  turkey  is  the  most  popular 
table  fowl,  and  is  often  spoken  of  as  our  national  bird.  Its 
flesh  is  lighter  and  not  so  greasy  as  that  of  the  water  fowls. 
There  are  several  breeds  of  domesticated  turkeys,  the  best 
known  being  the  Bronze,  Narragansett,  and  the  Holland. 
The  Bronze  is  the  largest  and  most  popular  turkey,  often 
reaching  a  weight  of  forty  pounds  in  the  male.  The  fe- 
male weighs  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five 
pounds.  The  origin 
is  not  certain,  but  it 
is  believed  to  have 
come  from  a  cross  of 
the  North  American 
wild  turkey  on  the 
Black  variety.  Great 
stress  is  laid  on  the 
large  size  of  the 
Bronze.  Correct 
markings  on  the  plum- 
age are  secondary  to 

Figure  37.     Bronze  turkeys.  weight  iu  this  Variety. 


i ' 

i 

"^ 

''■\ 

'ifli 

HH^^J^^^.^ 

K 

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k 

■^^ 

im 

. . 

56 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


The  Narragansetts  were  originated  in  Rhode  Island  and 
were  very  popular  before  the  development  of  the  Bronze 
turkeys.  They  are  gray  in  color,  with  a  bronze  luster  on  the 
wings.  Maturing  early  and  of  a  more  gentle  disposition 
than  the  Bronze,  they  are  still  raised  extensively  in  some 
parts  of  the  country.  It  was  this  breed  that  made  the 
great  reputation  of  the  Rhode  Island  turkeys. 

The  White  Holland 
turkey  is  a  hardy  breed 
of  German  origin.  It  ma- 
tures earlier  than  the 
larger  breeds  and  is  often 
raised  for  this  reason.  Its 
plumage  is  white.  This 
breed  is  the  Leghorn  of 
the    turkey    family,    the 

Figure  38.     White  Holland  turkeys.  j^^^g    SOmetimeS     laying 

all  summer  and  even  refusing  to  sit.  As  the,  egg  branch 
of  the  industry  is  not  relatively  important,  it  is  not  as  pop- 
ular as  the  larger  breeds. 

Other  breeds  of  less  importance  are  the  Buff,  raised  by 
fanciers  for  its  beautiful  plumage;  the  Slate,  very  similar 
to  the  Buff  except  in  color;  the  Black,  the  oldest  variety, 
now  chiefly  bred  in  England;  and  the  Bourbon  Red,  a  large 
breed  originating  in  Kentucky  and  by  some  compared 
favorably  with  the  Bronze. 


CHAPTER  III 

AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS 

GOOD  RESULTS  SECURED 

The  boys  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration  are 
just  ordinary,  healthy,  farmer  boys  living  two  or  three  miles 
apart  in  one  of  the  central  counties  of  the  ^'Gopher  State." 
They  are  under  fourteen  years  of  age,  but  are  veterans  in 
corn  growing,  having  been  through  several  contests.       The 

average  acre 
crop  which  they 
have  grown  has 
been  more  than 
three  times  the 
state  average, 
and  their  state 
averaged  several 
bushels  more 
than  the  average 
corn  yield  of  the 
United  States. 
So,  while  these 
are  just  average  boys,  they  have  grown  much  more  than 
average  corn.  You  will  be  interested  in  how  they  did  it. 
Vern  and  Lawrence  attended  neighboring  country  schools. 
They  were  pretty  much  the  same  kind  of  schools  that 
farmers'  boys  have  attended  in  this  country  for  generations. 
In  fact  about  the  only  difference  was  that  there  were  more 
books  in  the  newer  schools,  and  many  of  these  books  told 
so  much  about  the  wonderful  things  going  on  in  the  cities 
that  some  of  the  boys  and  girls  became  discontented,  not 
only  with  the  school,  but  also  with  the  farm.     But  the 

57 


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w 

L'im^.ith^ 

1 

Ik 

^^9i 

m 

i 

1 

J     ;     ^    I     ^ 

il 

Figure  39.  Two  prize  winners  in  state  contest  and  sam- 
ples of  their  corn.  Average  yield,  110  bushels  per 
acre.     The  ear  on  the  scale  weighs  one  pound. 


58  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

parents  of  these  boys  were  progressive  young  farmers. 
Vern's  father  was  particularly  interested  in  pure  bred  stock, 
while  Lawrence  was  the  son  of  a  farmer  who  saw  some  of 
the  tremendous  possibilities  of  corn  breeding  and  growing 
in  a  state  that,  up  to  very  recently,  has  not  been  regarded 
as  being  in  the  corn  belt.  The  boys  became  more  interested 
in  the  activities  of  the  farm  than  in  school  and  Vern  quit  to 
help  his  father. 

About  this  time  a  number  of  other  progressive  farmers, 
business  men  and  educators  saw  the  advisability  of  co- 
operating to  secure  state  aid  for  the  maintenance  of  industrial 
departments  in  the  village  school.  The  departments  were 
secured  and  specialists  were  employed  to  teach  the  elements 
of  agriculture  and  manual  training  to  the  boys,  and  home 
training  to  the  girls.  A  teachers^  training  department  pre- 
pared bright  young  men  and  women  to  teach  the  new  sub- 
jects along  with  the  old  in  the  rural  schools.  Fifteen  country 
school  districts  near  the  village  got  a  new  vision  of  country 
life  and  became  ^^ associated ^^  with  the  central  school  for 
mutual  benefit.  The  specialists  from  the  local  departments 
and  from  the  state  extension  division  held  institutes  in  the 
rural  schools  for  the  parents  and  gave  talks  and  demonstra- 
tions to  the  boys  and  girls.  The  teacher  of  agriculture 
interested  the  boys  in  corn  and  potato  growing  contests  and 
assisted  them  in  this  work.  The  girls  became  interested  in 
vegetable  gardening,  tomato  contests,  bread  baking,  and 
other  practical  work,  assisted  by  the  home  training  depart- 
ment of  the  central  school.  Both  boys  and  girls  forgot 
much  of  what  they  had  read  about  city  life  and  began  to 
realize  that  they  had  what  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  large 
cities  longed  for — plenty  of  fresh  air,  pure  water  and  food, 
healthful  environment,  and  the  opportunity  to  come  in  con- 
tact with  living  plants  and  animals — in  a  word,  the  things 
most  worth  while  in  life.  The  farm  and  the  home  became 
interesting,  and  even  the  school  became  a  part  of  real  life. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS,  59 

It  was  not  difficult  to  interest  Lawrence  in  the  first  corn 
contest,  as  his  father  was  already  quite  well  known  as  a 
pure  seed  breeder  and  grower.  Vern's  father  rather  re- 
luctantly gave  him  an  acre  for  the  contest;  but,  when  he 
succeeded  in  raising  nearly  double  the  amount  on  that  acre 
that  any  other  acre  of  corn  on  the  farm  produced,  the  father 
admitted  that  there  must  be  some  unusual  reason  for  it. 
He  was  not  fully  convinced,  however,  and  Vern  was  not 
encouraged  to  enter  the  contest  the  next  year.  The  in- 
structor in  charge  of  the  contest  work  suggested  that  the 
success  of  the  son  was  rather  humiliating  to  the  father  and 
felt  that  this  had  something  to  do  with  the  decision.  Law- 
rence easily  won  first  place  over  about  twenty  contestants 
that  season.  The  next  winter  Vern  again  became  interested 
in  school  on  account  of  the  kind  of  work  which  was  done  in 
the  ^^short  courses,^'  and  he  studied  corn  and  stock  raising. 
The  following  summer  he  was  determined  to  get  into  the 
contest  again.  He  did  so,  and  a  battle  royal  was  on.  When 
the  officials  checked  up  in  the  fall,  Vern  led  Lawrence  by  a 
few  bushels,  growing  one  hundred  fifteen  bushels  and  thirty- 
two  pounds  to  the  acre.  At  the  short  course  commence- 
ment exercise,  before  an  audience  of  hundreds  of  persons 
from  the  associated  districts,  he  read  from  his  ' 'agricultural 
booklet^ ^  telling  how  he  had  raised  this  amount  of  corn. 
The  picture  shows  the  sample  he  had  with  him  at  that  time. 
Can  you  tell  from  the  picture  which  one  is  Vern?  What  is 
land  worth  that  will  raise  as  much  corn  annually  as  this 
boy  raised?     The  work  of  these  boys  is  worth  consideration. 

Any  wide-a-wake  boy  or  girl  can  do  as  well,  if  equally  in- 
terested. These  two  boys  learned  the  value  of  good  seed; 
how  to  pick  it  and  store  it;  seed  testing;  planting  to  secure  a 
good,  even  stand;  cultivation,  not  only  to  kill  weeds,  but  to 
conserve  moisture.  In  short,  they  learned  practical,  scientif- 
ic farming. 


60  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

But  these  boys  learned  more  than  that.  They  learned 
to  express  themselves  in  better  oral  and  written  language, 
because  they  were  familiar  with  the  things  they  wished  to 
discuss.  The  language  and  English  lessons  meant  much 
more  to  them  when  they  were  a  means  of  expressing  some- 
thing that  was  of  vital  interest  to  the  young  folk  in  the 
classes.  Because  the  schools  have  made  the  boys  and  girls 
interested  in  these  practical  things,  these  newer  subjects 
have  in  turn  vitalized  the  language  work  by  supplying  a 
wealth  of  interesting  material  about  which  to  talk  and  write. 
Consequently,  the  schools  in  many  states  have  made  the 
industrial  booklets  the  basis  of  the  language  work. 

The  student  should  not  be  satisfied  merely  to  work  out 
a  composition  or  essay  from  the  outlines  given  for  the  vari- 
ous phases  of  industrial  work.  They  should  be  worked  out 
on  the  farm  and  in  the  home.  Such  subjects  should  be 
chosen  as  can  be  so  developed.  Students  should  become 
familiar  with  all  the  common  grains,  grasses,  seeds,  flowers, 
trees,  vegetables,  weeds,  insects,  and  farm  animals.  These 
should  be  easy  for  country  boys  and  girls,  but  how  many 
know  them?  It  is  good  to  select  seeds  at  special  times, 
observe  '^Seed  Corn  Week,''  learn  the  ''rag  doll"  and  other 
methods  of  testing  seeds,  learn  to  use  the  common  garden 
tools  and  farm  implements,  study  the  different  soils  and 
industries  in  your  community;  also  the  different  breeds  of 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  fowls,  etc.,  raised.  What  kind 
of  potatoes  are  being  raised?  Why  that  variety?  The 
varieties  should  be  compared  to  see  which  are  better  boiled, 
which  baked,  etc. 

Seeds  are  furnished  for  vegetable  and  flower  gardens 
either  at  home  or  at  school.  Appreciation  should  be  shown 
by  having  the  best  garden  it  is  possible  to  have.  The 
pleasure  and  profit  to  be  derived  from  such  work  cannot  be 
known  until  it  has  been  tried.  The  ice  cream  at  the  pic- 
nic will  taste  better,  fishing  will  be  more  delightful,  and  the 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS  61 

ball  game  will  be  all  the  more  worth  while,  on  account  of 
the  garden  and  contest  work. 

OUTLINES 

The  outlines  that  follow  are  to  be  worked  out  by  the 
student  in  booklet  form.  Reference  material  will  be  found 
in  the  school  library,  at  home,  and,  above  all,  in  the  fields. 
The  booklets  should  be  worked  out  as  fully  as  possible  and 
illustrated  with  pictures  and  original  drawings.  Only  the 
best  writing  and  language  the  student  is  capable  of  using 
should  be  accepted  in  this  work,  as  it  is  English  work  as 
well  as  agriculture. 

Suggestive  topics  for  agricultural  booklet  work  are  as 
follows:  Corn,  Small  Grains,  Noxious  Weeds,  the  Vege- 
table Garden,  Potatoes,  the  Legumes,  Alfalfa  and  Its  Uses, 
the  Fiber  Crops  of  the  United  States,  Grass  and  Forage 
Crops,  Sugar  Beets,  Soils  and  FertiHzers,  Seed  Testing  for 
Purity  and  Germination,  Injurious  and  Beneficial  Insects, 
Rotation  of  Crops,  Drainage,  The  Need  of  Modern  Methods 
in  Farming,  Dry  Farming  and  Irrigation. 

CORN 

Corn  has  gradually  replaced  the  small  grains  in  so  many 
states  that  ^^Corn  is  King."  Diversified  farming  has  brought 
about  this  change.  Many  states  that  formerly  were  not 
near  the  corn  belt  are  now  among  the  leaders  in  its  pro- 
duction. New  varieties  have  been  bred  to  meet  the  new 
conditions.  Corn  is  an  excellent  cultivated  crop  for  any 
rotation  series.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  most  widely  used  cereal, 
being  used  as  human  food,  stock  food,  and  in  many  other 
ways.  All  the  numerous  varieties  with  which  we  are 
familiar  have  been  developed  from  the  original  Indian  Corn. 

In  1914,  2,672,804,000  bushels  of  corn  were  raised  in  the 
United  States. 


62 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


1.  Early  History — 

(1)  In  the  United  States — Indian  corn. 

(2)  In  your  state — Development  of  varieties. 

(3)  In  your  locality — Earliest  growers. 

2.  Importance  as  a  Crop — 

(1)  Where  grown — Countries  and  states. 

(2)  Yields  per  acre — National,  state,  local. 

(3)  Comparison  with  other  crops. 

3.  Kinds  of  Corn — 

(1)  Pod  corn — Now  only  a  curiosity. 

(2)  Pop  corn — Where  grown,  uses. 

(3)  Sweet  corn — Where  grown,  canning. 

(4)  Flint — Where  grown — varieties. 

(5)  Dent — Where  grown — varieties. 


iJHH 

1 

JaE 

^' 

1 

1 

1 

i 

J 

Figure  40.     Tray  of  typical  seed  corn.     A  few  kernels  have  been 
removed  for  testing, 

4.  Cultivation — 

(1)  Soil— 

(a)  Fertility — Rotation  of  crops. 

(b)  Drainage — Necessary  to  success" 

(c)  Physical  conditions. 

(2)  Preparation  of  seed  bed — 

(a)  Plowing — Fall  plowing  best. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS 


63 


(b)  Disking — In  the  spring. 

(c)  Harrowing — Before  and  after  planting. 

(d)  Manuring — Before  plowing,  top  dressing. 

(3)  Planting— 

(a)  By  hand — Hand  planter,  hoe. 

(b)  Check  row — Horse  planter,  advantage. 

(c)  Drill — How  drilled,  advantages. 

(d)  Time  to  plant  locally. 

(4)  Summer  tillage — 
(a)  Need  of — 


Figure  41.     Gathering  seed  corn  at  school  farm  and  stringing  for  drying. 

(1)  Eradication  of  weeds. 

(2)  Conservation  of  moisture. 

(b)  Depth — Shallow  vs.  deep. 

(c)  Frequency — After  every  rain. 
5.  Diseases  and  Pests — 

(1)  Smut — Cause,  eradication,  dangers. 

(2)  Animals — Gophers,  crows,  blackbirds. 

(3)  Insects — Cutworm,  wireworm,  corn  root  louse,  white ' 

grub,  chinch  bug,  army  worm,  stalk  borer,  grass- 
hopper. 

(4)  Method  of  dealing  with  pests. 


64  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

6.  Harvesting — 

(1)  Silage — When  cut,  how  stored. 

(2)  Bundle  corn — When  cut,  machinery. 

(3)  Husking— When,  how,  storing. 

7.  Seed  Selection — 

(1)  From  seed  plot — Advantages. 

(2)  From  field — Best  stalks  and  ears. 

(3)  From  crib — Disadvantages. 

(4)  Time— ^^Seed  Corn  Week.^' 

(5)  Quantity — Amount  needed  for  ten  acres. 

(6)  Commercial  purposes — Prevailing  prices. 

8.  Storing — 

(1)  Temporary  drying — Where,  time. 

(2) .  Permanent  storing — Free  from  moisture. 

(a)  Patent  devices. 

(b)  Homemade  devices. 

9.  Corn  Judging. 

'     (1)  Without  score  card. 

(2)  With  score  card. 

10.  Seed  Testing— 

(1)  Testers — Patent,  homemade. 

(2)  Individual  ear — Advantages. 

(3)  Shelled  corn — Disadvantages. 

11.  Seed  Grading — 

(1)  How  done — Machinery. 

(2)  Why  done — Butts  and  tips. 

12.  Corn  Breeding — 

(1)  Improvement  of  quality — Better  corn. 

'        (2)  Improvement  of  quantity — More  corn. 

(3)  Improvement  of  maturity — Earlier  corn. 

(4)  Corn  crossing — New  varieties. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS  65 

13.  Uses  of  Corn — 

(1)  Stock  food— 

(a)  Grain — Ground  or  fed  whole. 

(b)  Bundle  corn — Roughage  and  grain. 

(c)  Silage — Protein  and  fattening  qualities. 

(d)  Hogging  off — Advantages. 

(e)  Commercial  preparations — Gluten  meal,  etc. 

(2)  Human  food — 

(a)  Cornmeal — How  used. 

(b)  Corn  starch — Uses. 

(c)  Hominy — How  made,  uses. 

(d)  Corn  syrup — How  made,  uses. 

(e)  Corn  sugar — How  made,  uses. 

(f)  Special  breakfast  foods — Corn  flakes,  etc. 

(3)  Other  Uses — Paper,  alcohol,  armor  wadding,  etc. 

REFERENCES 
Corn  by  Bowman  &  Crossley,  Field  Crops  by  Wilson  &  War- 
burton,  Corn  Crops  by  Montgomery,  and  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  of 
America  by  Hunt  are  excellent  works  of  reference. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

It  is  now  pretty  generally  known  that  growing  the  same 
kind  of  crops  on  the  same  fields  year  after  year  will  gradu- 
ally wear  out  the  soil,  or  cause  its  fertility  to  become  de- 
pleted. Scientists  have  various  theories  as  to  why  this  is 
so,  but  the  fact  remains  that,  when  certain  classes  of  crops 
follow  other  classes,  better  results  are  obtained.  For 
example,  when  corn  follows  clover,  and  oats  follow  corn,  a 
better  crop  of  oats  can  be  expected  than  if  oats  are  grown 
year  after  year  on  the  same  soil.  In  general  it  has  been 
shown  that  grain  crops  should  be  followed  by  grass  crops 
and  they  in  turn  by  cultivated  crops.  You  will  be  interested 
in  studying  the  system  of  rotation  in  use  on  the  home  farm 
or  on  any  one  that  has  a  good  system. 


66 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  42.     Field  continuously  in  corn  for  fourteen  years. 
Average  27  bushels  per  acre. 


1.  Need  of  Rotation — 

(1)  Exhaustion  of  soils — 

(a)  In  New  England— Character  of  soil. 

(b)  In  Virginia — Tobacco  raising. 

(c)  In  the 
West  —  Grain 
growing. 

(2)  To  decom- 
pose fertilizers — 

(a)  How 
rotation  helps. 

(b)  Decom- 
position can  take 
place  only   with 

neat,    air    and        Figure  43.       sample  of    soil  taken  from  above    field. 
mrkiaf  iiT'o  T'V.^io^  Such  soil  easily  dries  out.      It  lacks  the  elements 

iilUlfclUie.         J.nebe  necessary  for  plant  growth. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS 


67 


Figure  44.     Field  of  corn  in  five-year  rotation.     Average,  58  bushels  per  acre. 


conditions  should  exist  while  the  plant  is  grow- 
ing.    Otherwise  plant  food  is  lost  by  washing. 

.     (3)  To  increase  yields — 

(a)  Crops  actually  larger  under  crop  rotation. 

(4)  To  maintain  soil  fertility — 
(a)  Some 
European  soils, 
cropped  for  more 
than  a  thousand 
years  under  rota- 
tion, better  than 
virgin  soil. 
2.  Theories  of 
Rotation — 

(1)  Toxic-Poi- 
sons produced   by       Figure   45.      Sample  of   soil  taken  from   above  field. 
qnppp«5GiiVp  prnnQ  Notice  the  diflference  in  texture  and  physical  con- 

toULLCbfelve  L/lup&.  dition  between  the  two  soils. 


68  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(2)  Chemical — Plant  food  unlocked,  bacteria. 

(3)  Economic — Maintains  vegetable  matter. 

3.  Classes  of  Rotation — > 

(1)  Grain  crops — Kinds,  advantages — 

(a)  Food  and  sale  crops. 

(b)  Little  vegetable  matter  left  in  soil. 

(2)  Grass  crops — Kinds,  advantages. 

(a)  Live  stock — Pasturage. 

(b)  Vegetable  matter — Large  roots,  bacteria. 

(3)  Cultivated  crops — Kinds,  advantages. 

(a)  Economy  in  time — Summer  work. 

(b)  Favorable  conditions  for  decomposition. 

(c)  Effect  on  soils — How  beneficial. 

4.  Principles  of  Rotation — 

(1)  Short  time — 

(a)  For  building  up  worn  out  soils. 

(b)  Three-year  rotation — Grain,  grass,  cultivated. 

(2)  Long  time — 

(a)  For  permanent  use. 

(b)  Five  to  ten  years — Advantages. 

(3)  Fertilizers  used — 

(a)  Dressing  of  manure  once  during  rotation. 

(b)  Commercial  fertilizers  as  needed. 

(4)  Relation  to  fields — 

(a)  Same  number  of  fields  as  years  of  rotation. 

(b)  Fields  uniform  size  as  nearly  as  possible. 

(c)  Enables  constant  supply  of  live  stock. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS 


69 


5.  Suggestive  Rotations — 

(1)  Three  Year  Plan— 

Year 

Field  A              Field  B 

Field  C 

1915 

Grain                 Clover 

Corn 

1916 

Clover               Corn 

Grain 

1917 

Corn                  Grain 

Clover 

(2)  Four  Year  Plan— 

Year 

Field  A         Field  B        Field  C 

Field  D 

1915 

Grain           Meadow      Pasture 

Corn 

1916 

Meadow      Pasture        Corn 

Grain 

1917 

Pasture        Corn            Grain 

Meadow 

1918 

Corn            Grain           Meadow 

Pasture 

(3)  Five  Year  Plan— 

Year 

Field  A     Field  B    Field  C    Field  D 

Field  E 

1915 

Grain       Grain       Meadow  Pasture 

Corn 

1916 

Grain       Meadow  Pasture    Corn 

Grain 

1917 

Meadow  Pasture    Corn         Grain 

Grain 

1918 

Pasture    Corn         Grain       Grain 

Meadow 

1919 

Corn         Grain       Grain       Meadow  Pasture 

Note:  Find  out  what  rotations  are  used  in  the  community  and 
encourage  wider  use  of  them. 

REFERENCES 

A  new  work  entitled,  Field  Management  and  Crop  Rotation  by 
E.  C.  Parker  is  a  most  thorough  treatment  of  this  subject  and  an 
invaluable  book  for  reference. 


COMMON  WEEDS 

Every  boy  and  girl  should  learn  to  identify  the  most 
common  weeds.  Unfortunately  one  will  not  have  to  hunt 
long  to  find  most  of  them  along  the  roadside,  or  in  the 
streets,  in  back  yards,  fields  and  even  in  most  gardens. 
The  economic  importance  of  weeds  can  be  realized  when  we 
remember  the  tremendous  losses  due  to  their  neglect.     It 


70  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

is  not  sufficient  to  know  the  growing  weed.  We  must 
learn  to  recognize  the  seeds  also.  A  knowledge  of  weed 
classification  will  enable  one  to  intelligently  apply  the 
methods  of  eradication.  There  should  be  a  careful  study 
of  as  many  of  those  given  in  the  outline  as  can  be  found 
during  the  summer  and  a  collection  should  be  brought  to 
school  for  identification.  Seeds  may  be  preserved  in 
small  pill  bottles.     They  should  be  carefully  labeled. 

1.  Definition  of  a  Weed — Any  plant  out  of  place. 

2.  Classification — 

(1)  Annual  weeds — 

(a)  Characteristics — Ripen  seeds  one  year  only. 

(b)  Eradication — Destroy  before  seed  forms. 

(2)  Biennial  weeds — 

(a)  Characteristics — Ripen  seeds  the  second  year. 

(b)  Eradication — Prevent  seeding. 

(3)  Perennial  weeds — 

(a)  Characteristics — Ripen  seeds  every  year. 

(b)  Eradication — Destroy  seed  and  root  stem. 

3.  Economic  Conditions — 

(1)  Injurious  effects — 

(a)  Rob  crops  of  moisture. 

(b)  Take  nourishment  from  crops. 

(c)  Sometimes  poisonous  to  live  stock. 

(d)  Money  loss — Millions  of  dollars  annually. 

(2)  Beneficial  effects — 

(a)  Fertilizers — Plowed  under  as  ^^green  manure." 

(b)  Shade  ground — Prevent  baking  of  soil. 

(c)  Rotation — Sometimes  compel  rotations  of  crop. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS 

4.  A  Few  of  the  '^Worst  Weeds^'— 
(1)  Russian  thistle — 

(a)  Annual — Small  seeds,  tumble  weed. 

(b)  Where  found — Flat  prairie  country. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Cultivation,  crop  rotation. 


71 


Figure  46.     Wild  mustard. 

(2)  Pigeon  grass — 

(a)  Other  names — Foxtail,  barn  grass. 

(b)  Annual — Small  seeds,  large  head. 

(c)  Where  found — Gardens,  grain  fields. 

(d)  How  destroyed — Cultivation. 

(3)  Ragweed — 

(a)  Annual — Three  kinds,  small  seeds. 

(b)  Especially  obnoxious — Hay  fever. 

(c)  Where  found — Roadsides,  waste  places. 

(d)  How  destroyed — Mow  roads  and  corners. 


72 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


(4)  Cocklebur — 

(a)  Annual — Seeds  in  clusters. 

(b)  Where  found — Grain  fields. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Cultivation,  pasturing. 

(5)  Mustard— 

(a)  Annual — Tall  plant,  yellow  flower. 

(b)  Where  found — Grain  fields. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Crop  rotation. 

(6)  Wild  cat— 

(a)  Annual — Ripens  early  and  shells  out. 

(b)  Where  found — Grain  fields. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Crop  rotation. 

(7)  Burdock— 

(a)  Biennial — Bushy  plant,  seed  in  burs. 

(b)  Where  found — Roadside,  pastures, 

(c)  How  destroyed — Digging  up,  plowing. 


Figure  47,     Curled-leaf  dock  in  pasture. 


AORICULTURAL  BOOKLETS  73 

(8)  Bull  thistle— 

(a)  Biennial — Bushy  plant,  red  flower. 

(b)  Where  found — Pastures,  waste  places. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Crop  rotation. 

(9)  Dock— 

(a)  Perennial — Four  kinds. 

(b)  Where  found — Low,  moist  places,  meadows. 

(c)  How   destroyed — Deep   cutting,   hand    pulling, 

crop  rotation. 

(10)  Dandelion— 

(a)  Perennial — Small  plant,  yellow  flower. 

(b)  Where  found — Everywhere,  lawns  in  particular. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Dig  out,  sheep  pasture. 


Figure  48.     Quack  grass. 


74  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(11)  Canada  thistle — 

(a)  Perennial — One  of  our  worst  weeds. 

(b)  Where  found — Grain  fields,  roadsides. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Cultivation,  crop  rotation. 

(12)  Plantain— 

(a)  Perennial — Small  plant,  seeds  in  spikes. 

(b)  Where  found — Lawns,  pastures. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Dig  up,  sheep  pasture. 

(13)  Quack  grass — 

(a)  Perennial — Perhaps  our  worst  weed. 

(b)  Where  found — Grain  fields,  pastures,  roads. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Crop  rotation,  smothering  sum- 

mer fallow. 

REFERENCES 

Much  help  may  be  obtained  from  Weeds  and  How  to  Eradicate 
them  by  Shaw,  Quack  Grass  Eradication  by  Crane,  Weeds  of  the 
Farm  and  Garden  by  Pammel,  and  Manual  of  Weeds  by  Georgia. 

INSECTS  THAT  I  KNOW 

To  the  average  individual  all  insects  are  ^^bugs.^'  This 
conception  is  erroneous.  Next  to  the  study  of  birds  there 
is  probably  no  more  delightful  outdoor  study  than  that  of 
insects.  The  common  grasshopper  is  a  good  example  of 
an  insect  which  has  an  incomplete  series  of  changes  from 
the  egg  to  the  adult.  The  young  grasshopper  is  called  a 
nymph.  The  moth  or  butterfly  is  an  example  of  the  other 
kind  of  insect — those  having  four  changes,  or  metamor- 
phoses. These  changes  may  easily  be  observed  by  careful 
study.  Methods  of  extermination  must  depend  upon 
whether  insects  belong  to  the  biting  or  sucking  class.  Learn 
to  know  the  common  insects. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS 


75 


Figure  49. 


General  Description — 

(1)  Parts— Head, 
thorax,  abdomen. 

(2)  Legs — all  have 
three  pairs. 

(3)  Breathing  spir- 
acles—  Tubes  on 
abdomen. 

Stages  of  Growth. 
(Metamorphoses) — 

(1)  First  stage — Egg. 

(2)  Second  stage  — 
Larva. 

(3)  Third  stage— Pu- 
pa, or  cocoon. 

(4)  Fourth  stage — 
Imago,  or  adult. 

(5)  Incomplete  metamorphoses — Egg,  nymph,  adult. 

Groups  of  Insects — 

(1)  Biting— 

(a)  Mouth  parts  fitted  for  biting. 

(b)  Example — Grasshopper. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Can  be  poisoned. 

(d)  Sprays — Paris  green,  lead  acetate. 

Paris  green 1  pound 

Quicklime 1  pound 

Water 200  gallons 

(2)  Sucking— 

(a)  Mouth  parts  fitted  for  sucking  juices. 

(b)  Example — Plant  louse. 

(c)  How  destroyed — Suffocation,  cannot  poison. 

(d)  Sprays — Soap  emulsion,  tobacco,  tea. 


Cecropia  (large  silk  worm)  moth — 
pupa  and  cocoon. 


76  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

Soap 1^  pound 

Soft  Water 1  gallon 

Kerosene 2  gallons 

(3)  Preying  insects — 

(a)  Those  that  feed  upon  other  insects. 

(b)  Example — Ladybugs. 

(c)  How  protect — Beneficial,  not  injurious. 

4.  Economic  Conditions — 

(1)  Money  losses — Millions  of  dollars  annually. 

(2)  Mechanical  devices  for  destroying. 

(3)  Unsanitary — Disease  carriers. 

(4)  Annoying  pests — Mosquitoes,  cockroaches,  etc. 

5.  Straight-winged  Insects — Orthoptera — 

(1)  Grasshopper — 

(a)  Changes — Incomplete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  grain  and  grass. 

(2)  Cockroach — 

(a)  Changes — Incomplete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  infest  houses. 

(3)  Cricket— 

(a)  Changes — Incomplete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  fields,  homes. 

6.  Sheath-winged  Insects — Coleoptera  (Beetles) 

(1)  Potato  beetle — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  damage  enormous. 

(2)  Buffalo  beetle— 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  carpets,  clothing. 

(3)  Ladybug  (Not  a  bug  at  all) — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Beneficial,  destroys  insects. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS  77 

(4)  Boll  weevil — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  eats  cotton  boll. 

(5)  Plum  curculio — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  plum,  cherries,  apples. 

7.  Half-winged  Insects — Hemiptera  (Bugs) — 

(1)  Plant  lice— 

(a)  Changes — Irregular,  sucking  insects. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  plant  juices. 

(2)  Scale  bugs  (San  Jose  and  others) — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  sucking  insects. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  orchards,  trees. 

(3)  Squash  bug — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  sucking  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  attacks  all  vines. 

(4)  Chinch  bug — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  sucking  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  grains,  grasses,  corn. 

(5)  Bedbug— 

(a)  Economy — Injurious,  houses,  hotels. 

(b)  Destroy  with  corrosive  sublimate  in  alcohol   and 
turpentine. 

8.  Two-winged  Insects — Dip- 

tera — 
(1)  Typhoid  fly — Common 
house  fly. — 

(a)  Changes — Complete, 
biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy— Disease         Figure  so.     House,  or  typhoid,  fly 

carriers,  scavengers.  ^clO.  l.  washbum 


78  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(2)  Hessian  fly — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  '^flax  seed''  stage. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious — wheat  fields. 

(3)  Fleas  and  mosquitoes — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  biting  insects. 

(b)  Economy — Great  human  pests. 

(4)  Botfly— 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  parasites. 

(b)  Economy — Horse  and  cattle  pests. 

9.  Scaly-winged  Insects — Lepidoptera — 

(1)  Distinguish  between  moths  and  butterflies. 

(2)  Codling  moth — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Injurious,  apples. 

(c)  How  destroy — Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead. 

(3)  Cotton  moth.  (Army  worm) — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Great  damage  to  cotton  and  oats. 

(c)  How  destroy — Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  for 

small  areas.    For  large  ones  see  reference  books. 

(4)  Cabbage  butterfly — 

(a)  Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 

(b)  Economy — Destroys  cabbages. 

(c)  How  destroy — Cover  cabbage  with  flour. 

10.  Membrane- winged  Insects — Hymenoptera — 

(1)  Bees— 

(a)  Varieties — Life  history. 

(b)  Changes — Complete,  biting,  insects. 

(c)  Economy — Beneficial,  honey,  wax,  etc. 

(2)  Ichneumon  flies — 

(b)  Changes — Complete,  parasite, 
(b)  Economy — Beneficial,  destroys  great  numbers  of 
insects  annually. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS 
REFERENCES 


79 


Insects  Injurious  to  Staple  Crops  by  Sanderson,  Insects  Injurious 
to  Vegetables  by  Chittenden,  Manual  of  Fruit  Insects  by  Slingerland 
&  Crosby,  Injurious  Insects — How  to  Recognize  and  Control  Them 
by  O'Kane,  Our  Insect  Friends  and  Enemies  by  Smith,  and  Spraying 
Crops — Why,  When  and  How  by  Weed. 

COTTON 

Cotton  is  the  world's 
greatest  fiber  crop.  It  is  also 
one  of  the  leading  crops  of 
the  United  States,  about 
three  quarters  of  a  billion 
dollars  worth  now  being  rais- 
ed annually.  Manufactured 
products  from  the  coarsest 
to  the  finest  grade  fabrics 
are  every  day  necessities  the 
world  over.  A  great  num- 
ber of  by-products  are  made 
from  the  seed. 

This  important  plant  has 
been  raised  since  prehistoric 
times.  It  probably  originated  in  India  or  China.  Alex- 
ander the  Great  is  said  to  have  introduced  it  into  Europe. 
It  is  almost  three  hundred  years  ago  that  the  Virginian  col- 
onists first  began  to  grow  cotton.  The  fertile  soils  and  warm 
climate  of  the  South  have  been  conducive  to  its  growth,  and 
the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  by  Eli  Whitney  made  its 
wonderful  future  possible.  Our  great  Southland  now  pro- 
duces more  than  three  fifths  of  the  world's  supply. 

1.     Importance  of  Cotton — 

(1)  Greatest  fiber  crop. 

(2)  Why  called^^King  Cotton''. 


Figure  51.     Picking  cotton. 


80  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(3)  Raw  materials — 

(a)  Home  trade. 

(b)  Foreign  trade. 

(4)  Finished  products — 

(a)  Home  markets. 

(b)  Foreign  markets. 

2.  History  of  Cotton — 

(1)  Since  prehistoric  times — 

(2)  Originated  in  India  or  China — 

(3)  Called  ^'tree  wooP^  by  ancients — 

(4)  Columbus  found  native  cotton  in  America — 

(5)  Early  uses  of  cotton — 

3.  Development  in  the  United  States — 

(1)  Introduced  into  Virginia  Colony — 

(a)  Date  1621. 

(b)  How  raised? 

(c)  Uses  in  Colonial  times. 

(2)  Great  increase  in  production  due  to — 

(a)  Climatic  conditions  of  the  United  States. 

(b)  Fertile  soils  of  the  South. 

(c)  Invention  of  cotton  gin. 

(d)  Other  causes. 

(3)  Principal  money  crop  of  the  South — 

(a)  Comparison  with  corn  crop. 

(b)  Comparison  with  wheat  crop. 

(c)  Comparison  with  other  crops. 

(4)  Spread  of  cotton  area — 

(a)  In  western  Texas. 

(b)  In  Oklahoma. 

4.  Types  of  Cotton — 

(1)  American  upland  cotton — 

(a)  Short-staple — Importance. 

(b)  Long-staple — Importance. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS  81 

(2)  Sea  Island  cotton — 

(a)  Originated  in  West  Indies. 

(b)  Must  be  grown  near  coast. 

(c)  How  different  from  upland. 

(d)  Lower  yields,  but  higher  prices. 

5.  Improvement  of  Cotton — 

(1)  By  selection  of  varieties- 

(a)  Erect  plants. 

(b)  Bushy  plants. 

(2)  By  selecting  seed  from  best  plants — 

(a)  Strength  of  lint. 

(b)  Fineness  of  fiber. 

(c)  Uniformity  of  color. 

(3)  By  better  farming  methods — 

(a)  Commercial  fertilizers. 

(b)  Permanent  rotations. 

(c)  Early  planting — Good  seed — Good  stand. 

(d)  Proper  tillage  during  growing  season. 

6.  Suitable  Soils — 

(1)  Medium  loams  best — 

(2)  Other  good  soils  are  suitable  provided  there  is — 

(a)  Long,  warm  growing  season. 

(b)  Plenty  of  rainfall. 

(3)  Deep  soils — Good  subsoil — 
(a)  Cotton  has  long  taproot. 

(4)  Green  manure — 

(a)  As  fertilizer. 

(b)  Conserves  moisture. 

(c)  Cowpeas,  peanuts,  soy  beans,  crimson  clover. 

(5)  Very  sandy  soils  poor  because — 

(a)  They  require  expensive  fertilizer. 

(b)  Rust  disease  attacks  plant  worse. 


82  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(6)  Very  rich  soils  not  suitable  because — 

(a)  Plants  grow  coarse  and  produce  a  small  crop. 

7.  Preparation  of  Seed  Bed — 

(1)  Fall  plowing — 

(a)  Kills  insects. 

(b)  Germinates  poor  seed  and  allows  frost  to  kill  it. 

(c)  Refuse  turned  under  to  form  humus. 

(2)  Ridging  the  soil  in  the  spring- 

(a)  With  turning  plow. 

(b)  With  disk-harrow. 

(3)  Harrowing — 

(a)  To  kill  weeds. 

(b)  To  conserve  moisture. 

(4)  Marking  for  planting — 

(a)  With  shovel  plow. 

(b)  With  special  drills. 

8.  Fertilizers  Used — 

(1)  Natural— 

(a)  Barnyard  manure. 

(2)  Commercial — 

(a)  3%  nitrogen,  1%  phosphoric  acid,  and  1M%  Pot- 
ash of  seed  sold  should  be  returned  to  the  soil. 

9.  Planting — 

(1)  3}/2  to  4  feet  between  rows— 15  inches  apart. 

(2)  1  to  IJ^  bushels  seed  per  acre. 

(3)  From  early  March  to  May. 

10.     Cultivation  of  Crop — 

(1)  Harrowing  before  and  after  crop  comes  up — 

(2)  Frequent  and  shallow— 

(3)  Should  continue  until  first  picking — 
11..  Harvesting — 

(1)  By  machinery — 

(a)  Not  generally  successful — 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS  83 

(2)  By  hand— 

(a)  Most  expensive  part  of  crop. 

(b)  Average  about  $9  per  bale  of  500  lbs.  for  picking. 

(3)  Yields  per  acre — 

(a)  Average  only  about  200  pounds. 

(b)  ' 'Demonstration''  farms  yield  from  600  to  800 

pounds. 

(c)  Can  be  greatly  increased  by  scientific  methods. 

12.  Marketing— 

(1)  Cotton  gin — 

(a)  History  of. 

(b)  Separates  the  seeds. 

(c)  Bales  the  cotton. 

(2)  Bales  should  be  protected  from  weather — 

(3)  Foreign  and  domestic  markets — 

(4)  Grades  of  cotton — 

13.  By-products — 

(1)  Cottonseed — 

(a)  Oil— Uses. 

(b)  Meal— Uses. 

(2)  Linters,  trash,  etc. 

(a)  Seven  or  eight  per  cent. 

14.  Diseases  of  Cotton — 

(1)  Cotton  wilt— 

(a)  Causes  and  remedies. 

(2)  Cotton  rust — 

(a)  Causes  and  remedies. 

(3)  Cotton  root-knot — 

(a)  Causes  and  remedies. 

15.  Insect  Enemies — 

(1)  Boll  weevil. 

(a)  Damage  done — Extermination. 

(2)  Boll  worm,  or  ''corn  worm" — 

(a)  Damage  done — Extermination. 


CHAPTER  IV 

HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS 

''Horticulture"  comes  from  two  Latin  words  meaning 
the  cultivation  of  a  garden.  We  can,  therefore,  properly 
place  vegetable  gardening,  fruit  raising,  and  landscape  gar- 
dening under  the  head  of  horticulture.  There  are  many 
interesting  topics  in  this  group  that  can  be  made  subjects 
for  booklet  work.     The  following  list  will  suggest  others: 

Strawberries,  Brush  Fruits,  Apples,  Fruit  Bearing  Trees, 
Citrus  Fruits,  the  Vineyard,  the  Stone  Fruits,  the  Orchard, 
Landscape  Gardening,  the  Vegetable  Garden,  Potatoes,  and 
Market  Gardening. 

STRAWBERRIES 

What  boy  or  girl  is  not  particularly  fond  of  ripe,  lus- 
cious strawberries?  That  the  average  garden  does  not  raise 
enough  for  home  use  is  usually  because  no  one  cares  *'to 
bother  with  such  things."  Raising  small  fruit  is  not  only 
interesting  in  itself,  but  it  is  one  of  the  most  profitable 
forms  of  industry  for  young  folk.  One  should  study  the 
varieties,  learn  how  they  are  propagated,  and  select  the 
most  suitable  kind  for  one's  own  garden.  There  is  always 
a  demand  and  good  price  for  any  amount  produced. 

L  Where  Grown — 

(1)  Almost  every  country  in  the  world. 

(2)  More  widely  grown  than  any  other  fruit. 
2.  Origin — 

(1)  South  America — Chile,  most  varieties 

(2)  Wild  strawberry — A  few  varieties. 

84 


HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS  85 


Figure  52.     Fine  cluster  of  strawberries. 

(3)  Alpine  strawberry — Native  of  Europe. 

(a)  Everbearing  variety — Becoming  important. 

3.  Location  and  Soil — 

(1)  Northern  slope — Retarded  in  spring,  no  frost. 

(2)  Sandy  loam — Rich,  well  drained. 

(3)  Warm  soil — Retain  moisture. 

(4)  Sod — Likely  to  contain  cutworms,  etc. 

(5)  Cultivated  soil — Corn  or  potato  land  good. 

(6)  Preparation  of  soil — 

(a)  Fertilizer — Heavy  manuring,  or  commercial. 

(b)  Plowing^ — Shallow,  fall. 

(c)  Disking — Thoroughly  worked,  spring. 

(d)  Seed  bed— Loose  on  top,  compact  below. 

4.  Propagation — 

(1)  By  seed — 

(a)  Used  in  obtaining  new  varieties. 

(2)  By  division  of  old  plants — 

(a)  Used  to  propagate  individual  plants. 


86  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(3)  By  runners — 

(a)  The  common  way. 

(b)  How  done. 

5.  Plants  and  Planting — 

(1)  One  year  old  plants — White,  fibrous  roots- 
(a)  Used  for  spring  planting. 

(2)  Spring  plants — White  roots — 
(a)  Used  for  fall  planting. 

(3)  Old  plants — Dark  roots — 
(a)  Not  good  for  planting. 

(4)  Time  for  planting — 

(a)  Spring — For  northern  climates. 

(b)  Fall — For  southern  climates. 

(5)  Heeling  in — 

(a)  When  dry,  or  when  soil  is  not  ready. 

(b)  Open  bunches — Place  in  furrow,  pack. 

(6)  Methods  of  planting — 

(a)  Hill  method — For  small  patches,  hoe. 

(b)  Matted  rows — For  large  patches,  cultivate. 

Set  rows  four  feet  apart,  two  feet  apart  in  the 
row.     Use  corn  marker  for  large  patch. 

(7)  Planting— 

(a)  Two  persons — Man  with  spade,  boy  plants. 

(b)  Trowel — For  small  garden  patches. 

(c)  Staminate  and  pistillate  varieties,  hardy. 

6.  Care  During  Summer — 

(1)  Cultivation — Horse,  between  rows — 

(a)  Shallow — Free  from  weeds,  moisture. 

(b)  Thin  plants  if  necessary,  cut  runners. 

(2)  Train  runners  with  the  rows 

(3)  Pick  off  all  blossoms. 


HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS  87 

7.  Winter  Protection — 

(1)  Materials — Straw,  hay,  etc. 

(2)  Time — Cover  after  ground  is  frozen. 

(3)  Depth — Cover  three  or  more  inches. 

(4)  Remove — After  danger  of  frost  in  spring. 

(5)  Place  straw  between  rows,  conserve  moisture. 

8.  Renewing  Beds — 

(1)  After  one  crop — Most  growers  plow  up. 

(2)  Second  year  crop — If  necessary — 

(a)  Mow  off  and  burn. 

(b)  Plow  furrow  each  side,  leave  one  foot  wide. 

(c)  Manure,  cultivate. 

(d)  New  plants,  grown  by  fall. 

9.  Picking  and  Marketing — 

(1)  For  home  use — Pick  ripe,  wash. 

(2)  For  market — Rather  green,  boxes — 
(a)  Sort  berries  for  market. 

(3)  Prices — Local,  shipping. 

10.  Strawberry  Diseases  and  Insects — 

(1)  Rust  on  leaves — 

(a)  Spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

(b)  Rake  up  leaves  and  burn. 

(2)  White  grub  and  cutworm — 

(a)  Do  not  plant  on  sod. 

(b)  Rake  and  burn  after  picking. 

(3)  Leaf  roller — 

(a)  Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead. 

REFERENCES 

Popular  Fruit  Growing  by  Green,  The  A  B  C  of  Strawberry  Cul- 
ture by  Terry,  and  Strawberry  Culturist  by  Fuller. 


88 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


THE  ORCHARD 

Every  home  should  have  an  orchard  large  enough  to  at 
least  furnish  the  family  with  all  the  fruit  needed.  There 
are  enough  hardy  varieties  of  orchard  fruits  so  that  even 
in  the  northern  climates  there  should  be  no  lack  of  fruit. 
A  small  outlay  and  a  little  care  will  bring  the  desired  re- 
sults that  will  be  both  pleasing  and  profitable. 

In  the  United  States  in  1909  there  were  over  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  millions  of  apple  trees  of  fruit-bearing  age. 
They  produced  an  average  of  almost  a  bushel  to  a  tree, 
valued  at  $83,231,492. 


Figure  53.     A  well  kept  young  apple  orchard. 


1.  Location  of  the  Orchard — 

(1)  Northern  exposure — Usually  best — 

(a)  Prevents  freezing  in  spring. 

(b)  Prevents  injuring  from  hot  winds  in  summer. 

(2)  Near  body  of  water — 

(a)  More  even  temperature. 


HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS  89 

2.  Drainage — 

(1)  Air  drainage — 

(a)  High  spots — Cold  air  in  valleys. 

(b)  Rolling  lands. 

(2)  Soil  drainage — 

(a)  Natural — High  and  rolling  lands. 

(b)  Tile — Between  rows,  if  necessary. 

3.  Home  Orchard — 

(1)  Plant  where  most  convenient. 

(2)  Not  always  ideal  location. 

4.  The  Soil— 

(1)  Hardpan  subsoil — To  be  avoided. 

(2)  Gravel  and  sand — Not  good. 

(3)  Heavy  clay  loam — Too  slow. 

(4)  Light  clay  loam — Best. 

(5)  Hardwood  soil — Usually  good. 

5.  Preparation — 

(1)  Cultivated  land  best. 

(2)  Fertilizers — Rotted  manure,  green  manure. 

(3)  Plowing — Fall,  very  deep. 

(4)  Disking  and  harrowing— Spring. 

6.  Orchard  Stock — 

(1)  From  reliable  nurseries. 

(2)  Get  stock  early. 

(3)  Heeling  in — Cover  roots  in  trenches. 

(4)  Size  of  trees — One  to  three  years  old. 

(5)  Grafted  stock — Root,  scion. 

(6)  Head  the  tree  low. 

(7)  Know  varieties  best  suited  to  locality. 


90 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  54.     Tree,  heavy  with  citrus  fruit. 


Courtesy  The  Van  Sant  Co. 


7.  Varieties  for  Northwest — 

(1)  Apples — Duchess,  Hibernal,  Patten's  Greening,  Oka- 

bena.  Wealthy,  Malinda,  Anisim,   Iowa  Beauty, 
Milwaukee,  Jewell's  Winter. 

(2)  Crabs  and  hybrids — Whitney,  Florence,  Strawberry, 

Minnesota,  Transcendent. 

(3)  Plums  and  hybrids — De  Soto,  Forest  Garden,  Wolf, 

Wyant,  Stoddard,  Terry. 

8.  Planting — 

(1)  Distance  between  trees — Twenty-five  to  thirty  feet. 

(2)  Arrangement — Some  definite  system — 

(a)  Triangular  system — More  trees  to  acre. 

(b)  Square  plan — For  small  orchards. 

(c)  Straight  rows — Beauty,  convenience. 

(d)  Planting  board — Accuracy. 

(3)  Trim  roots — About  eight  inches  long. 


HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS 


91 


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Figure  55.     In  the  grapefruit  grove. 


Courtesy  The  Van  Sant  Co. 


(4)  Depth — Plant  deeper  than  in  nursery. 

(5)  Firm  soil  around  tree — Two-inch  mulch  on  top. 

(6)  Moisture — Do  not  water  unless  very  dry. 

9.    Citrus  Fruits — 

(1)  Where  grown. 

(2)  Kinds  of  soil  suitable. 

(3)  Site  of  grove — Transportation,  drainage,  protection, 

rainfall,  etc. 

(4)  Orange — Bahia,  or  Navel,  Pineapple,  Parson  Brown, 

Tardiff,  Centennial,  King,  Valencia. 

(5)  Tangerine — Satsuma,  China,  Dancy,  King. 

(6)  Kumquat — Nagami,  Maruni. 

(7)  Grapefruit — Standard,   Duncan,   Excelsior,    Hall, 

Marsh,  Royal. 

(8)  Citron — Corsican,  Lyman,  Orange. 

(9)  Lemon — Lisbon,  Sicily,  Eureka. 

(10)  Lime — Imperial,  Mexican,  Persian. 


92  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

10.  Other  Fruits— 

1)  Where  grown. 

2)  Peaches — Climatic  conditions,  varieties,  marketing. 

3)  Pears — Varieties,  marketing,  etc. 

4)  Others — Kinds,  where  grown,  commercial  value. 

11.  Training  the  Tree — 

1)  Cut  top  to  within  two  feet. 

2)  Prune  each  spring. 

3)  Low,  well  formed  top  desired. 

12.  Cultivation — 

1)  To  secure  rapid  growth. 

2)  Use  disk  and  harrow. 

13.  Protection — 

1)  Do  not  cultivate  too  close. 

2)  Wrappers  protect  from  sun  scald. 

3)  Soil  mounted  around  crowns  in  fall. 

4)  Snow  sheds — Prevent  breaking  branches. 

5)  Washes — Protect  from  insects. 

6)  Spraying — Keeps  tree  healthy. 

14.  Marketing  Fruit — 

1)  Home  markets — Keeping  apples. 

2)  Selling  on  the  trees. 

3)  Picking  and  packing. 

REFERENCES 

Popular  Fruit  Growing  by  Green,  Productive  Orcharding  by 
Sears,  and  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing  by  Bailey. 

VEGETABLE  GARDENS 

Whether  in  town  or  country  every  home  should  have  its 
vegetable  garden.  No  other  spot  pays  so  well,  and  the 
pleasure  derived  from  contact  with  the  garden  on  a  pleasant 


HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS  93 

spring  morning  or  summer  evening  is  more  than  its  money 
value.  Without  a  garden,  fewer  vegetables  are  used,  as 
they  must  be  purchased,  and  the  cost  of  living  is  increased 
to  the  extent  that  more  high  priced  meat  and  groceries 
must  take  their  place.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  leave  part  of 
the  garden  work  to  the  women  and  children,  but  not  all  of 
it.  The  preparation  of  the  soil,  laying  out  the  garden  so 
that  machinery  can  be  used,  and  part  of  the  work  should 
be  done  by  the  men.  The  garden  should  contain  a  good 
variety  of  vegetables  for  use  from  early  spring  until  late 
fall.  A  few  simple  tools  kept  sharp,  and  a  garden  drill  for 
sowing  and  cultivating,  if  the  patch  is  large,  are  necessary 
for  good  results. 

1.  Location  of  Vegetable  Garden — 

(1)  Near  the  house — Saves  time. 

(2)  Fenced  in — Or  fence  chicken  yard. 

2.  Classes  of  Gardens — 

(1)  Market  garden — 

(a)  Planning — Grow  for  demands  of  market. 

(b)  Marketing — Delivery,  packing,  transportation. 

(2)  Home  garden — 

(a)  May  be  part  of  market  garden. 

(b)  Small  kitchen  garden. 

3.  Arrangement — 

(1)  Must  be  more  or  less  permanent — 
(a)  Perennials — Together,  cultivation. 

(2)  Plan  the  garden — On  paper  during  winter. 

(3)  Rows  far  apart — Use  horse  for  cultivating. 

(4)  Similar  plants  should  be  together. 

(5)  Neatness  and  beauty — Straight  rows,  symmetrical. 


94  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  56.     Preparing  the  soil  for  a  school  garden. 

4.  Soil— 

(1)  Sandy  loam — Clay  subsoil — 

(a)  Rich  soil — Barnyard  manure  well  rotted. 

(b)  Commercial  fertilizers — Nitrate  of  soda,  etc. 

(2)  Southern  slope — 

(a)  Warmer  in  early  spring. 

(b)  Best  for  vines,  ripening  tomatoes,  melons,  etc. 

(3)  Preparation  for  planting — 

(a)  Plowed  in  fall — Kill  weeds  and  insects. 

(b)  Disked  and  harrowed  in  spring. 

(c)  Free  from  clods,  sticks,  stones,  etc. 

5.  Hotbeds  and  Cold  Frames — 
(1)  Hotbed  started  early — 

(a)  Size — As  wide  as  sash  used  and  any  length. 

(b)  Location — South  side  of  building  or  fence. 

(c)  Manure — House  manure,  depth,  a  foot  or  more. 

(d)  Glass — Use  ordinary  storm  sash. 

(e)  Ventilation — After  seventy-five  or  eighty  degrees. 

(f)  Watering — Each  morning. 

(g)  Plants — Early  plants  for  transplanting. 


HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS  95 

(2)  Cold  frame— 

(a)  Use — For  transplanting  from  hotbed. 

(b)  Transplant  to  garden  as  desired. 

(c)  Cover  only  when  danger  of  frost. 

6.  Planting  Garden — 

(1)  From  cold  frames — 

(a)  For  early  use. 

(b)  Main  crop  after  danger  of  frost. 

(2)  Hardy  vegetables — 

(a)  As  early  as  ground  can  be  worked. 

(b)  Onions,  carrots,  peas,  etc. 

(3)  Main  crop — Later  than  hardy  varieties. 

(4)  Vines — After  danger  of  all  frost  is  past. 

(5)  For  fall  use — Late  plantings. 

(6)  Methods  of  planting — 

(a)  Hand  planting  for  small  amounts. 

(b)  Garden  drill  for  large  garden. 

(c)  Firming — When  ground  is  dry. 

7.  Cultivation — 

(1)  Hoeing  and  hand  cultivators — 

(a)  For  small  gardens. 

(b)  After  large  cultivators  in  market  gardens. 

(2)  Horse  cultivators — 

(a)  More  effective — Save  time. 

(3)  Time  of  cultivation — 

(a)  Often  enough  to  kill  weeds. 

(b)  After  rain  to  conserve  moisture. 

(c)  From  early  spring  to  late  fall. 

8.  Friends  and  Foes — 
(1)  Garden  friends — 

(a)  Animals — Toads,  frogs,  snakes,  some  birds. 

(b)  Insects — Ladybug,  bees,  ants,  ichneumen  fly. 


96 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


i     Sl:      if'              |.v 

Figure  57.     Caring  for  a  school  garden  in  the  summer. 

(2)  Garden  foes — 

(a)  Animals — Chickens,  gophers,  birds,  etc. 

(b)  Insects — Squash    bug,    potato    beetle,    cabbage 
butterfly,  cutworm,  etc. 

(c)  Plant  diseases — Potato  scab  and  rot,  etc. 

(d)  Weeds — Consume  nourishment  and  moisture. 

9.  Harvesting — 

(1)  As  needed  during  growing  season. 

(2)  In  the  fall— 

(a)  Care  in  gathering.  ' 

(b)  Selecting,  grading,  and  storing. 

10.  Suggestive  Vegetables  to  Grow — 

(1)  Tubers — Underground  stems.  (Potatoes) — 

(a)  Early  varieties — Early  Rose,  Early  Ohio,  Cobbler, 
Eureka  Extra  Early,  Norton  Beauty,  and  Triumph. 

(b)  Late  varieties — Burbank,  Carmen,  Rural,  Walter 
Raleigh,  and  Pingree, 


HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS 


97 


(2)  Roots — Root  of  plant  developed  for  food — 

(a)  Require  heavy  rich  soil. 

(b)  Kinds — Carrots,  parsnips,   turnips,   beets,   ruta- 
bagas, radish,  sweet  potatoes,  and  salsify. 

(3)  Bulbs— 

(a)  Onions — Several  varieties,  sandy  loam. 

(4)  Seed  vegetables — 
(a)  Peas  and  beans. 


Figure  58.     School  garden  products  exhibited  at  fall  contest. 


(5)  Leaf  plants — 

(a)  Kinds — Cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery,  lettuce,  spin- 
ach, kohl-rabi,  Swiss  chard,  cress  and  kale. 

(b)  Special  care  needed  for  many  of  these. 

(6)  Vines— 

(a)  Planting  time — Late,  danger  of  frost. 

(b)  Kinds — Watermelon,  muskmelon,  squash,  pump- 
kin, citron  and  cucumber. 

(7)  Herbs— 

(a)  Used  for  flavoring. 


98  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(b)  Kinds — Sage,  mint,  summer  and  winter  savories, 
lavender,  anise,  dill,  and  thyme. 

(8)  Corn- 
ea) Sweet — For  table  use  and  canning, 
(b)  Pop — For  winter  use. 

(9)  Fruit  vegetables — 

(a)  Grown  for  the  fruit  of  the  plant. 

(b)  Kinds — Tomatoes,  ground  cherries,  etc. 
(10)  Perennials — 

(a)  Remain  in  garden  from  year  to  year. 

(b)  Kinds — Rhubarb,  horse  radish,  asparagus,  etc. 

REFERENCES 

References  on  Vegetable  Gardening  may  be  obtained  through 
the  state  and  national  Division  of  Pubhcations.  Good  books  for  the 
library  are  Green's  Vegetable  Gardening,  Gardening  for  Pleasure  by 
Henderson,  Success  in  Market-Gardening  by  Rawson,  Productive 
Vegetable  Growing  by  Lloyd,  and  Garden  Farming  by  Corbett. 


CHAPTER  V 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  BOOKLETS 

All  normal  young  people  are  interested  in  animals.  The 
boy  or  girl  who  has  not  had  a  pet  lamb,  chicken,  duck,  colt, 
or  some  other  animal  has  missed  a  great  deal.  Those  who 
are  not  already  fortunate  enough  to  own  some  of  these 
animals  should  decide  which  they  prefer  and  make  arrange- 
ments to  begin  to  be  live  stock  producers  as  soon  as 
possible.  Many  find  it  more  interesting,  and  sometimes 
more  profitable,  to  raise  live  stock  than  to  grow  vegetables 
or  grain.  The  training  will  be  very  valuable.  If  some  do 
not  own  animals,  they  can  study  those  belonging  to  others. 

The  production  of  live  stock  is  one  of  the  greatest  indus- 
tries in  the  country.  With  the  present  demand  far  in 
excess  of  the  supply  in  nearly  all  branches  of  live  stock,  it 


Figure  59.     Class  doing  field  work  in  animal  husbandry. 

would  seem  that  something  besides  high  prices  is  neces- 
sary to  stimulate  still  greater  interest  in  stock  raising.  The 
great  ranges  for  feeding  sheep  and  cattle  are  practically 

99 


100  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

gone.  The  bulk  of  the  live  stock  for  the  markets  must, 
therefore,  be  raised  on  the  farms.  Since  stock  raising  is 
always  more  profitable  than  grain  farming,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  a  reasonable  amount  of  live  stock  makes  possible  a 
well  balanced  rotation  plan,  animal  husbandry  would  seem 
to  be  a  very  important  subject  for  the  rural  schools,  and  to 
provide  an  excellent  opportunity  to  do  practical  work  in 
arithmetic,  in  computing  rations,  etc.,  and  to  get  practice 
in  composition  in  the  booklet  work. 

A  great  number  of  topics  present  themselves  as  suit- 
able for  animal  husbandry  booklets.  Among  them  are  the 
following:  Poultry  for  Pleasure  and  Profit,  Farm  Animals, 
The  Care  of  Animals,  Veterinary  Science  on  the  Farm, 
Swine,  Sheep  Raising,  Horses,  the  Dairy,  Creameries  and 
Cheese  Factories,  Animal  Diseases,  Beef  Raising,  Silos  and 
Silage,  How  to  Feed  Animals  and  Bee  Culture. 

CATTLE 

Cattle  raising  on  the  western  plains  has  been  one  of 
the  great  industries  of  this  country.  As  the  lands  became 
settled  for  general  farming  the  large  ranches  gradually 
disappeared.  Since  the  great  majority  of  the  beef  must 
now  be  produced  on  the  small  farm,  this  branch  of  animal 
husbandry  is  very  important.  Pure  bred  stock  is  always 
the  cheapest  in  the  end.  In  the  study  of  this  outline  find 
out  what  kind  of  stock  you  have  at  home  and  what  breeds 
are  raised  in  the  community. 

In  the  United  States  in  1914  there  were  56,592,000  beef 
and  dairy  cattle  valued  at  $2,234,820,000.00. 

1.     Origin — 

(1)  Most  of  our  cattle  are  developed  from  English  breeds. 

(2)  From  cross  with  American  buffalo. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  BOOKLETS 


101 


2.    Beef  Breeds — 

(1)  General  features — 

(a)  Block  type,  ability  to  take  on  flesh. 

(b)  Low,  broad,  deep. 


Figure  60.     Champion  two  year  old  Shorthorn  cow — a  beef  type. 

(2)  Shorthorn  or  Durham — 

(a)  English  origin. 

(b)  Best  known  beef  type. 

(3)  Hereford— Called  '  Vhite  faces''— 

(a)  English  origin,  large,  over  a  ton. 

(b)  Becoming  very  popular. 

(4)  Aberdeen  Angus — Hornless — 

(a)  Scotch  original. 

(b)  Large  proportion  of  meat  when  dressed. 

(5)  Red  Poll — Medium  size,  harmless — 

(a)  English  origin. 

(b)  General  purpose. 


102  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(6)  Galloway — Hardy  breed,  hornless — 

(a)  Scotch  origin. 

(b)  Hide  used  for  robes. 

(7)  Others — Devon,  Brown  Swiss. 

(8)  Raising  beef  animals — 

(a)  Breeding,  housing,  pasturing,  fattening. 

(b)  Marketing — Local  and  city  markets. 

(9)  The  packing  houses — 

(a)  Location,  products,  by-products. 

(b)  Comparison  of  prices  with  live  stock. 

3.    Dairy  Breeds — 

(1)  General  features — 

(a)  Angular  in  form. 

(b)  Large  udder. 

(c)  Large  capacity  for  turning  feed  into  milk. 

(2)  The  Jersey — Most  popular  in  United  States — 

(a)  Native  to  Island  of  Jersey. 

(b)  Rich  milk,  not  large  quantity. 


Figure  61.     A  pure  bred  Guernsey  cow — a  dairy  type. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  BOOKLETS  103 

(3)  Guernsey — Very  popular  in  some  sections — 

(a)  Native  to  Island  of  Guernsey. 

(b)  Milk  yellow,  more  than  of  the  Jersey. 

(4)  Holstein-Friesians — 

(a)  Originated  in  Holland. 

(b)  Large  flow  of  milk — Good  cheese  milk. 

(5)  Ayrshire — 

(a)  Scotch  origin. 

(b)  Much  milk,  not  rich  in  butter-fat. 

(6)  Other   Breeds— Dutch  Belted,   Kerry,    French   Ca- 

nadian. 

(7)  Care  of  dairy  herd — 

(a)  Breeding,  housing,  pasturing. 

(b)  Balanced  rations  for  dairy  cattle. 

(c)  Herd  and  individual  record. 

(8)  Dairy  products — 

(a)  Milk,  cream,  butter,  cheese,  etc. 

(b)  High  butter-fat  records. 

(c)  Laws  regulating  dairy  products. 

(9)  Machinery  used — 

(a)  Milking  machines — Not  in  general  use. 

(b)  Cream  separators — Keeping  clean. 

(c)  Apparatus  for  weighing  and  recording  milk. 

(d)  Babcock  tester — To  determine  butter-fat. 

^^Scrubs^'— 

(1)  These  are  mixed  breeds  and  no  breeds. 

(2)  Are  not  profitable  for  milk  or  beef. 

Diseases  of  Cattle — 
(1)  Tuberculosis — 

(a)  Poorly  ventilated  barns. 


104 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  62.     Modern  and  sanitary  housing. 


(b)  Tuberculin  test — How  given,  results. 

(c)  Transmitted  in  milk. 

(2)  Anthrax — 

(a)  Spores  of  germs  very  resistant. 

(3)  Other  diseases — 

(a)  Blackleg,  lockjaw,  pneumonia. 

(4)  Preventives — Sprays,  fresh  air. — 

(a)  Disinfectants — Bichloride    of    mercury,    chloride 

of  lime,   formaldehyde,    carbolic   acid,    cresol. 

(b)  How  to  disinfect  stables. 

6.    Value  of  Cattle — 

(1)  To  the  farm— 

(a)  Produce  meat  and  dairy  products. 

(b)  Produce  cheap  fertilizer. 

(c)  Permit  a  rotation  plan  to  be  followed. 

(2)  To  the  nation— 

(a)  Dairy  products  are  second  only  to  corn. 

(b)  Beef  cattle  rank  next  to  dairy  products. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  BOOKLETS  105 

REFERENCES 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry  by  Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds 
of  Farm  Animals  by  Plumb,  and  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production 
by  Eckles. 

HOGS 

Corn,  hogs  and  rotation  of  crops  are  very  closely  related 
in  modern  diversified  farming.  It  is  a  principle  of  soil  con- 
servation that  all  crops  should  be  fed  on  the  farm  and  the 
natural  fertiUzer  returned  to  the  soil.  It  is  also  usually 
more  profitable  to  dispose  of  the  crops  in  this  manner  than 
to  sell  them.  The  dairy  to  supply  the  milk  for  young  pigs, 
clover  for  the  growing  period,  and  corn  to  fatten  the  hogs, 
are  the  chief  means  that,  together  with  proper  management, 
will  insure  success.  Boys^  pig  contests  are  becoming  almost 
as  popular  throughout  the  country  as  the  acre  yield  corn 
contests.  The  making  of  a  booklet  on  hogs  should  stimulate 
interest  in  a  contest, 
bacon? 

In  the  United  States  in  1914  there  were  58,935,000  hogs 
valued  at  $612,951,000.00. 
1.     Importance — 

(1)  Relation  to  corn  and  grain  growing. 


Figure  63.    Lard  type  of  hog. 


106  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

2.  Lard  Type— 

(1)  General  feature — 

(a)  Capable  of  taking  on  fat. 

(b)  Thick  body,  short  head,  short  legs. 

(2)  Poland  China— 

(a)  Originated  in  Ohio. 

(b)  Black,  with  white  on  face,  tail  and  feet. 

(3)  Berkshire — 

(a)  English  origin. 

(b)  Erect  ears,  snout  upturned. 

(4)  Chester  White— 

(a)  Originated  in  Pennsylvania. 

(b)  Drooping  ears — Rather  slow  maturing. 

(5)  Duroc  Jersey — 

(a)  American  origin. 

(b)  Red  color,  ears  droop  forward. 

3.  Bacon  Type — 

(1)  General  features — 

(a)  Produced  for  side  meat  or  bacon. 

(b)  Long  body  and  legs,  long  snout. 


Figure  C4.     Bacon  type  of  hog. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  BOOKLETS 


107 


(2)  Large  Yorkshire — 

(a)  English  origin. 

(b)  White  color,  ears  erect,  large  size. 

(3)  Tamworth— 

(a)  English  breed. 

(b)  Red  color,  long  deep  body,  long  snout. 

(4)  Other  breeds — 

(a)  The  Thin  Rind,  or  Hampshire. 

(b)  The  Razor-backs  of  the  South. 
4.     Breeding — 

(1)  Select  a  breed  and  build  it  up — 

(a)  By  selection. 

(b)  By  new  blood. 


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Figure  65.     Modern  hog  house. 


5.  Housing — 

(1)  Hog  houses — How  built. 

(2)  Keeping  clean. 

6.  Care  of  Young  Pigs. 

7.  Feeds  and  Feeding — 

(1)  For  growing. 

(2)  For  fattening. 

(3)  Balanced  rations. 


108  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

8.  Diseases  of  Hogs — 

(1)  Cholera — Causes,  remedies,  preventives. 

(2)  Other  diseases. 

9.  Curing  Pork — 

(1)  At  the  packing  houses — 

(a)  Products  and  by-products. 

(2)  On  the  farm— 

(a)  Salted  pork. 

(b)  Dried  pork. 

(c)  Smoked  hams  and  bacon. 

REFERENCES 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry  by  Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds 
of  Farm  Animals  by  Plumb,  Productive  Swine  Husbandry  by  Day, 
and  Swine  Husbandry  by  Coburn. 

HORSES 

The  theory  and  history  of  the  evolution  of  the  horse 
are  very  interesting.  Comparatively  few  school  students 
are  able  to  recognize  the  different  types  and  breeds  of  horses. 
The  characteristics  of  each  should  be  learned  so  that  one 
can  determine  what  breeds  one  sees  on  the  road  and  in  the 
fields.  While  this  is  an  age  of  automobiles,  the  horse  is 
still  with  us  and  is  here  to  stay.  The  outline  should  be 
carefully  studied.  A  booklet  on  horses  would  be  well 
worth  the  time  it  takes  to  develop  it. 

In  the  United  States  in  1914  there  were  20,962,000 
horses  valued  at  $2,291,638,000.00. 

1.     History  of  the  Horse — 
(1)  Prehistoric  horse — 

(a)  Twelve  different  stages  shown  by  fossils  from 
five  toes  to  solipeds. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  BOOKLETS 


109 


(b)  Driven   from   early   home   in   woods   by   other 
animals,  and  life  on  plains  developed  the  single 

toe  of  the  hoof. 

(c)  Original  horse  only  the  size  of  fox. 
(2)  Historic  horse — 

(a)  First  mentioned  in  1712  B.  C.  when    Joseph    ex- 

changed horses  for  corn. 

(b)  Xenephon  described  a  war  horse. 

(c)  First  domesticated  in  Egypt  and  Arabia. 

(d)  American  horses  all  imported.     The  '^Broncho^* 

escaped  from  early  Spanish  explorers. 

2.     Uses— 

(1)  Probably  first  used  in  war  by  the  ancients. 


Figure  66.     A  pure  bred  Percheron — a  draft  type. 


110  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(2)  Later  used  in  chariot  races  by  Greeks  and  Romans. 

(3)  Valuable  for  farm  work. 

(4)  Hauling  loads  and  vehicles. 

(5)  Saddle  and  driving  horses. 

3.     Types— 

(1)  Draft:  Suited  to  farm  work  and  heavy  hauling — 

(a)  Percheron — Most  popular  in  America,  native  of 

France;  gray  and  black  in  color;  docile;  active, 
and  have  excellent  feet. 

(b)  Clydesdale — Draft  horse  of  Scotland  and  pop- 

ular in  America;  color  usually  bay  or  brown, 
rapid  walkers;  ^ ^feathery''  legs. 

(c)  Belgian — Bred   in   Belgium;   broad   back;   short 

legs;  small  feet;  chestnut  bay  and  brown  color. 

(d)  English   Shire — Popular  in  England;  short  legs, 

large  feet;  slow  walker;  bay  or  brown  with 
white  lower  legs  and  forehead. 

(e)  Suffolk — Originated  in  Suffolk  county,  England; 

common  farm  horse  of  that  country;  chestnut 
color;  small  ears;  pow^erful  body. 

(f)  French  draft — Larger  than  Percheron,  but  not 

so  popular. 

(2)  Coach:  Stylish  and  lighter  than  draft  horses — 

(a)  Hackney — Blocky  form;  gait  attractive;  several 

colors;  ^'high  stepper;^^  most  popular  carriage 
horse. 

(b)  German — Not  well  established  in  America;  long 

neck  and  legs;  general  purpose  horse. 

(c)  French — Long  stride;  good  action,  various  color; 

popular  in  France. 

(d)  Cleveland  Bay — EngHsh  origin;  largest  of  type; 

bay  in  color;  poor  action. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  BOOKLETS  111 

(3)  Roadster:  Small  head  and  pointed  ears;  speed — 
(a)  American  Trotter  or  Standard  Bred — Most  noted 

families  are  Hambletonians,  Clays,  Morgans, 
Pilots  and  Hal's  American  Breed. 

(4)  Saddlers:  Saddle  or  Harness  Horse — 

(a)  Arabian — Original  breed;  speed  type. 

(b)  Thoroughbred — English  saddle  horse. 

(c)  American — From  Arabian  and  thoroughbreds. 

(5)  Pony:  Small  horses  of  both  draft  and  speed  types — 

(a)  Shetland — Shetland  Islands;  gentle  for  children. 

(b)  Welch— Wales. 

(c)  Indian  ponies — Western  U.  S. 

(d)  Mustang  broncho — Western  plains. 

(6)  Hybrids— 

(a)  Mules — Not  a  true  breed;  cross  between  a  donkey 
and  horse,  hardy;  long  lived;  fine  draft  animals. 

4.     Care  of  Horses — 

(1)  Proper  shelter. 

(2)  Feeding. 

(3)  Training. 

REFERENCES 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry  by  Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds  of 
Farm  Animals  by  Plumb,  Productive  Horse  Husbandry  by  Gay. 

BIRDS  THAT  I  KNOW 

Audubon  societies  are  becoming  very  popular  nowadays 
and  a  great  deal  of  interest  is  shown  in  birds.  The  boy  who 
uses  his  sling-shot  as  a  pastime  in  killing  innocent  birds  is 
soon  outlawed  by  the  others,  and  properly  so.  Manual 
training  and  the  making  of  bird  houses  in  the  schools  have 
increased  the  interest  in  our  common  birds.  There  are 
but  very  few  birds  that  are  more  injurious  than  bene- 
ficial.     All  but  two  or  three  of  them  are  entitled  to  our 


112  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

protection.  The  beautiful  passenger  pigeon  has  just  become 
extinct.  Not  long  ago  these  birds  were  slaughtered  and 
sold  for  a  penny  each.  This  is  merely  an  example  of  what 
will  happen  to  most  of  our  feathered  friends,  if  the  boys 
and  girls  of  this  generation  do  not  learn  to  know  the  birds 
and  recognize  their  value. 

1.  Classes  of  birds — 

(1)  Land  birds. 

(2)  Water  birds. 

(3)  Game  birds. 

(4)  Birds  of  prey. 

2.  Migration- — 

(1)  Birds  that  do  not  migrate. 

(2)  Birds  that  go  south  for  the  winter. 

(3)  Make  a  table  of  migration  showing  dates. 

3.  Bird  Protection — 

(1)  National  and  state  laws. 

(2)  Dangers  from  cold  and  wet. 

(3)  Cats  and  other  animals. 

(4)  Bird  houses. 

4.  Bird  Study— 

(1)  From  books. 

(2)  In  the  field. 

(3)  Field  glasses. 

(4)  Note  book. 

5.  Injurious  Birds;  Destroy — 

(1)  EngUsh  sparrow — 

(a)  Feeds  on  grains  almost  entirely. 

(b)  Common  in  every  community. 

(2)  Kingfisher — 

(a)  Blue-gray  in  color;  loud,  harsh  call. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  BOOKLETS  113 

(b)  Around  ponds,  lakes  and  rivers. 

(c)  Feeds  on  fish,  frogs,  lizards. 
(3)  American  crow. 

(a)  The  common  black  crow. 

(b)  More  injurious  than  beneficial. 

6.    Beneficial  Birds:  Protect — 

(1)  House  wren — 

(a)  Brown  color;  small. 

(b)  Feeds  wholly  upon  insects. 

(2)  Song  sparrow — 

(a)  Most  abundant  of  all  our  birds;  pleasing  song. 

(b)  Larger  than  EngUsh  sparrow;  reddish  brown  back. 

(c)  Feeds  on  insects,  grass  and  weed  seeds. 

(3)  Orchard  oriole — 

(a)  Male,  chestnut  and  black;  female,  yellowish  and 

gray;  7)^  inches  long. 

(b)  Feeds  on  insects  chiefly :  about  15%  fruit  and  grain. 

(4)  Bank  swallow — 

(a)  Lives  in  holes   in   banks   of   earth;   smallest   of 

swallows. 

(b)  Feeds  wholly  on  insects. 

(5)  Barn  swallow — 

(a)  Builds  nests  in  barns  and  other  buildings. 

(b)  Most  graceful  and  beautiful  of  swallows. 

(c)  Feeds  on  insects  almost  entirely. 

(6)  Blue  jay— 

(a)  Very  beautiful;  large;  noisy. 

(b)  Feeds  on  insects,  mice,  weed  seed  and  grain. 

(7)  Cardinal— 

(a)  Male,  red;  female,  gray. 

(b)  Feeds  on  insects  and  weed  seed. 

(8)  Red-winged  blackbird — 


114  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(a)  Male,  black  with  red  shoulders;  females,  brownish 

black. 

(b)  Feeds   on    cutworms,   grasshoppers,    plant   lice, 

grain,  fruit  and  small  animals. 

(9)  Red-headed  woodpecker — 

(a)  Adults  have  entire  head  and  breast  red. 

(b)  Feeds  on  inj  urious  insects,  wild  fruit,  weed  seed, 

birds'  eggs. 

(10)  Killdeer— 

(a)  Easily  recognized  by  its  call. 

(b)  Feeds  entirely  upon  injurious  insects. 

(11)  Quail,  or  ^^Bob  White''— 

(a)  The  common  game  bird  of  America. 

(b)  Feeds  on  weed  seed,  injurious  insects,   fruits  and 

grain. 


Figure  67.     Owl  with  prey. 

(12)  Dove— 

(a)  Useful  for  food,  but  should  be  protected. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  BOOKLETS  115 

(b)  Feeds  on  weed  seed  chiefly,  and  grains  left  on  the 
ground  in  the  fields. 

(13)  Screech  owl — 

(a)  Very  useful;  recognized  from  call. 

(b)  Feeds    on    rats,    English    sparrows,    cutworms, 

caterpillars,  crickets,  etc. 

(14)  Barn  owl — 

(a)  Found  around  buildings. 

(b)  Feeds  on  mice,  rats,  rabbits,  etc. 

(15)  Buzzard — 

(a)  Beneficial  to  public  health. 

(b)  Feeds  almost  entirely  upon  carrion. 

(16)  Humming  bird — 

(a)  Very  small,  not  much  larger  than  bumble  bee. 

(b)  Feeds  on  gnats,  ants,  parasitic  wasps,  as  well  as 

nectar  from  trees  and  flowers.  ] 

(17)  Cowbird— 

(a)  Male,  greenish  black  with  brown  head;  female, 

dull  gray.     Lays  eggs  in  other  birds'  nests  and 
leaves  young  to  be  cared  for. 

(b)  Found  among  cattle,  hence  the  name.     Feeds  on 

gnats,   flies  and   other  insects. 

(18)  Meadow  lark— 

(a)  Beautiful  songster;  brown  back,  yellow  under. 

(b)  Found  perched  on  post  or  other  object. 

(c)  Feeds  on  insects  chiefly. 

(19)  Hawk— 

(a)  Several  kinds. 

(b)  Nearly  all  feed  on  insects,  mice,  gophers  and 

other  small  animals. 


11& 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  68.     Marsh  hawk. 


REFERENCES 

Our  Common  Birds  and  How  to  Know  Them  by  Grant,  Our 
Native  Birds  by  Lange,  Bird  Neighbors  by  Blanchan,  and  Field  Book 
of  American  Wild  Birds  and  Their  Music  by  Mathews. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
HOME  ECONOMICS  BOOKLETS 

Industrial  education  has  not  neglected  the  girls.  Nor 
should  it.  What  is  there  more  valuable  for  the  average 
young  woman  to  know  than  systematic  and  scientific  home 
making.  Notice  there  is  a  difference  between  housekeeping 
and  home  making.  Most  women  are  housekeepers,  but  not 
nearly  all  are  home  makers.  If  the  school  is  doing  work 
in  home  training  such  as  sewing,  cooking  and  serving  of  hot 
lunches,  it  will  be  a  pleasure  to  make  some  of  this  work  the 
basis  for  booklet  work.  If  none  of  these  things  is  being 
done  in  school,  it  is  all  the  more  necessary  to  do  these  at 
home  and  study  them  in  that  way.  While  most  of  the  out- 
lines for  booklets  given  in  the  other  subjects  should  be  of 
value  to  girls  as  well  as  boys,  the  topics  in  home  economics 
are  especially  for  girls. 

A  suggestive  list  of  topics  suitable  for  booklets  is  given: 
Household  Management,  Home  Sanitation,  Home  Con- 
veniences, Flies  and  Their  Control,  The  Kitchen  Garden, 
Home  Decoration,  Home  Furnishings,  Contagious  and  Infec- 
tious Diseases,  Human  Foods,  Canning  Without  Powders, 
Bread  Baking,  Egg  Cookery,  The  Fireless  Cooker,  Paper 
Bag  Cookery,  Pure  Milk,  Dairy  Products,  Garment  Making, 
The  Clothes  Moth,  How  Needles  and  Pins  Are  Made,  But- 
ton Manufactures,  How  Cloth  Is  Made,  How  Common  Salt 
Is  Made,  Curing  Meats. 

FLIES  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

*^Swat  the  Fly^^  has  become  a  national  slogan,  because 
it  is  now  realized  that  the  fly  is  not  only  a  filthy  pest  but 

117 


118  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

also  a  dangerous  enemy  of  good  health.  Flies  are  very 
often  responsible  for  several  of  our  worst  germ  diseases. 
There  is  no  reason  why  flies  cannot  be  controlled  as  soon  as 
the  general  public  is  sufficiently  enlightened  in  modern 
sanitation.     This  subject  affects  us  closely. 

1.  Classification — 

(1)  Diptera,  or  two-winged. 

(2)  Biting  and  lapping  insects. 

2.  House  Fly,  or  Typhoid  Fly— 

(1)  Home — 

(a)  In  filthy  places. 

(b)  In  barns  and  houses. 

(2)  Disease  carrier — 

(a)  Typhoid  fever. 

(b)  Tuberculosis. 

(c)  Dysentery. 

(3)  Sources  of  disease  germs — 

(a)  Outhouses. 

(b)  Dead  animals,  dump  grounds. 

(c)  Barnyard  manure. 

(d)  Garbage  cans. 

(e)  Infected  persons. 

(f)  Spitting  on  walks,  floors,  etc. 

(4)  Life  history  of  fly — 

(a)  Adult  lives  over  winter  in  warm  place. 

(b)  Pupa  is  protected  over  winter. 

(c)  Emerges  first  warm  days  of  spring. 

(d)  Female  lays  about  one  hundred  eggs. 

(e)  Maggots  hatch  in  eight  hours. 

(f)  Maggots  full  grown  in  six  days. 

(g)  Pupa  stage  three  to  five  days. 

(h)  Full  grown  fly  in  about  twelve  days. 

(5)  Rate  of  increase  enormous — 

(a)  Figure  the  increase  of  one  fly  for  season. 

(b)  Checked  only  by  natural  means. 


HOME  ECONOMICS  BOOKLETS  119 

(6)  Control  of  flies— 

(a)  Screens — For  doors,  windows,  outhouses. 

(b)  Allow  no  barnyard  manure  to  collect. 

(c)  Remove  all  garbage  piles. 

(d)  Have  garbage  pail  with  cover. 

(e)  Have  septic  tank — Do  away  with  outhouses. 

(f)  Poison  with  formalin  in  milk  and  water  mixture. 

(g)  Protect  all  food. 

(h)  Fly  contests — Children  collecting  for  prizes. 

(7)  Flytraps— 

(a)  The   Minnesota   trap — Agricultural    Experiment 

Station. 

(b)  Homemade  traps — Cost  a  few  cents. 

(c)  Quite  effective. 

(d)  Bait  important — Bread  and  milk,  meat. 

3.     Stock  Flies— 

(1)  Varieties— 

(a)  Horn  flies — Cluster  around  horns  of  cattle. 

(b)  Stable  flies — Resemble  house  fly,  but  bite. 

(c)  The   botfly — Maggot   attached   to   stomach    of 

horse. 

(2)  Feeding  habits — 

(a)  Blood  of  animals. 

(b)  Nectar  of  flowers. 

(3)  Preventives — 

(a)  Currying  horses  and  cattle. 

(b)  Solution  with  strong  odor. 

(c)  Darkened  stables. 

(d)  Sprays. 

(e)  Ointments  and  kerosene. 

REFERENCES 

Bulletins  and  books  on  insects,  sanitation,  etc. 


120  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

HOUSEHOLD  FRIENDS  AND  FOES 

Some  folk  dust  for  fear  their  neighbors  will  think  them 
untidy  housekeepers  if  they  do  not.  Such  persons  often 
use  the  feather  duster  to  save  time.  Those  who  know  what 
dust  is  realize  that  such  methods  merely  stir  up  the  dujt 
to  be  breathed  by  those  in  the  house,  with  cold  or  other 
disease  likely  to  follow.  They  use  a  damp  cloth  and  are 
careful  not  to  allow  any  dust  to  accumulate,  whether  visible 
or  not.  Dust  is  now  known  to  be  one  of  the  very  best  means 
for  the  development  of  disease  germs.  Poorly  lighted  and 
ventilated  rooms  make  the  situation  so  much  the  worse. 
Fortunately,  not  all  bacteria  are  our  foes,  many  are  our 
friends.  A  study  of  the  outline  and  references  will  make 
one  familiar  with  each. 

1.     Dust— 

(1)  Where  found — 

(a)  City  homes — Street  dust. 

(b)  Country  homes — Road  and  field  dust. 

(c)  Ships  at  sea — Coal  and  meteoric  dust. 

(d)  Everywhere — Atmosphere. 

(2)  Necessity  of  dust — 

(a)  No  life  without  dust. 

(b)  No  light  without  dust  particles. 

(3)  Movements  of  dust — 

(a)  By  winds. 

(b)  By  objects  in  motion. 

(4)  Composition  of  dust — 

(a)  Particles  of  earth,  wood  and  coal. 

(b)  Bits  of  clothing,  house  furnishings,  etc. 

(c)  Particles  resulting  from  wear  of  all  things. 

(d)  Numerous  germs. 

(5)  Dust  ^'gardens''— 

(a)  For  experimenting  with  dust. 


HOME  ECONOMICS  BOOKLETS  121 

(b)  Moist  bread  in  warm  place — Keep  covered. 
j(c)  Moist   meat   kept   warm — Cover    with    glass — 
Watch. 

(d)  Keep  milk  in  warm  place — Watch  changes. 

(e)  Place  piece  of  meat  in  covered  dish — Boil  half 
hour,  keep  out  air,  no  change. 

(f)  Canned  goods  do  not  spoil — Why? 
2.     Bacteria  Dust  Plants — 

(1)  Where  found. 

(2)  Kinds— 

(a)  Rod  shaped — Bacilli. 

(b)  Ball  shaped — Cocci. 

(c)  Spiral  shaped — Spirilla. 

(3)  Classification  as  plants — 

(a)  Because  they  can  live  on  mineral  matter. 

(b)  Animals  cannot  do  this. 

(4)  Life  history — 

(a)  Multiply  very  rapidly — MilHons  in  twenty-four 

hours. 

(b)  Reproduce  by  simple  division. 

(c)  Food — Milk,  meat  juices,  fruit,  sweets,  animals, 

man. 

(d)  Mostly  parasites — Live  on  prepared  food. 

(e)  Digest  their  food  and  throw  off  waste  products. 

(f)  Cause  changes  in  food  products. 

(g)  Cause  diseases — Waste  products  are  poisonous. 

(5)  Size  of  bacteria — 

(a)  Never  seen  with  naked  eye. 

(b)  Some  require  very  powerful  microscopes. 

(c)  Great  number  make  up  for  small  size. 

(6)  Power  of  movement — 

(a)  Some  are  stationary. 

(b)  Jerky  movements — Slow  motion. 

(c)  Whip-like  projections — CiHa. 


122  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(7)  Spore  state — 

(a)  Some  bacteria  can  remain  dormant  for  years. 

(b)  This  is  called  the  ^^spore  stage/^ 

(c)  Difficult  to  kill  such  species. 

(d)  Others  cannot  do  this. 

(e)  These  are  easily  destroyed. 

(8)  How  destroyed — 

(a)  Most  forms  by  boiling  or  baking. 

(b)  By  direct  sunlight  and  fresh  air. 

(c)  By  medical  treatment. 

(9)  Economy  in  nature — 

(a)  Some  are  very  useful. 

(b)  Some  are  very  harmful. 

3.  Yeast  Dust  Plants — 

(1)  Size  and  structure — 

(a)  Much  larger  than  bacteria. 

(b)  Single  cell — Living  plant — Budding. 

(2)  Requirements  for  growth — 

(a)  Moist,  warm  place. 

(b)  Temperature  from  70°  to  90°  F. 

(c)  Killed  with  heat  at  about  130°  F. 

(d)  Can  stand  more  cold  than  heat. 

(3)  Economy  in  nature — 

(a)  Used  in  bread  making. 

(b)  The  CO  2  given  off  raises  the  bread. 

(c)  Used  in  breweries. 

4.  Mold  Dust  Plants— 

(1)  Life  history — 

(a)  Spores — Correspond  to  seeds  of  higher  plants. 

(b)  Present  in  dust  at  all  times. 

(2)  Requirements  for  growth. 

(3)  Economy  in  nature — 

(a)  Useful  in  making  Limburger  cheese,  etc. 

(b)  Harmful — Cause  ringworm,  thrush,  liver  spots. 


HOME  ECONOMICS  BOOKLETS  123 

5.  How  Dust  Plants  Are  Useful — 

(1)  Bacteria  as  scavengers. 

(2)  Bacteria  in  the  soil — Nitrogen. 

(3)  In  commercial  world — 

(a)  Dyeing  industries. 

(b)  Flax  manufactures. 

(c)  Curing  and  tanning. 

(4)  In  producing  flavors. 

(5)  Butter  making. 

(6)  Cheese  making. 

(7)  Vinegar  production. 

6.  Injurious  Dust  Plants — 

(1)  Bacteria  cause  diseases — 

(a)  Typhoid  fever. 

(b)  Tuberculosis. 

(c)  Diphtheria. 

(d)  Other  diseases. 

(2)  Infectious  or  contagious  diseases — 
(a)  Explain  how  caused. 

(3)  The  ^'spoiling^^  of  food  stuffs. 

(4)  Preventives — 

(a)  Preserving  foods. 

(b)  Pasteurization. 

REFERENCES 

Bacteria,  Yeasts  and  Molds  by  Conn,  Household  Bacteriology  by 
Buchanan,  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life  by  Lipman,  and  Dust 
and  Its  Dangers  by  Prudden. 

BREAD  BAKING 

This  is  one  of  the  things  every  girl  should  learn  to  do 
well.  Experience  alone  will  not  produce  good  bread  bakers. 
The  scientific  principles  must  be  understood.  No  experi- 
ment should  be  more  interesting  than  that  of  learning  to 


124 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


bake  bread.  If  there  are  no  facilities  at  school,  the 
work  should  be  done  at  home  and  told  in  the  booklet  on 
'^Bread  Baking/'  Local  and  state  contests  should  be  en- 
couraged. Minnesota  has  just  completed  a  bread  baking 
contest  with  over  eighty  counties  represented  and  more 
than  sixteen  hundred  contestants.  Complete  directions  are 
given  in  Volume  III,  Number  7,  Rural  School  Agriculture, 
published  by  the  Minnesota  Extension  Division.  The  out- 
line here  given  is  based  upon  the  suggestions  given  in  that 
publication. 

1.  Origin  and   History  of  Bread  Making — 

(1)  Early  unleavened  bread. 

(2)  Leavened  bread  known  by  ancients. 

2.  Kinds  of  Bread — 

(1)  Make  from  what  sources. 

(2)  Methods  of  making. 

(3)  In  different  countries. 

(4)  Baker's  bread — 

(a)  Sometimes  cheap  flour,  alum,  etc. 


Figure  69.     Prize  winning  bread  in  competition  with  over  sixteen  hundred  entries. 


OTHER  BOOKLETS  125 

(5)  Homemade  bread — 
(a)  Pure  and  wholesome. 

3.  Essential  Factors  in  Bread  Baking — 

(1)  Flour— 

(a)  Bread  is  light  because  wheat  contains  gluten. 

(b)  No    other    grain    contains    gluten    of    desirable 

quality. 

(c)  White  flour  mixed  with  rye  to  make  it  light. 

(2)  Yeast— 

(a)  Dust  plant  found  in  the  air. 

(b)  Used  commercially. 

(c)  Gives  off  CO  2  (carbonic  dioxide)    which   raises 

the  bread. 

(d)  Compressed  yeast — Very  active,  will  not  keep. 

(e)  Dry  yeast — Cakes  soaked,  bread  sponge. 

(f)  Liquid  yeast — Homemade,  '^starter,'^  potatoes. 

(3)  Liquids — 

(a)  Milk — Better  crust  usually. 

(b)  Water — Often  used. 

(c)  Potato  water — From  white  potatoes. 

(d)  Buttermilk — Sometimes  an  unpleasant  flavor. 

4.  Other  Ingredients — 

(1)  Sugar — 

(a)  Food  for  yeast  plant — Hastens  rising. 

(b)  Two  teaspoonfuls  to  a  loaf  of  bread. 

(2)  Salt— 

(a)  Used  for  flavor. 

(b)  One  teaspoonful  to  a  loaf. 

(3)  Shortening,  or  fat — 

(a)  Makes  bread  more  tender. 

(b)  One  or  two  teaspoonfuls  to  a  loaf. 

5.  Best  Results  Obtained — 

(1)  By  having  good  materials. 


126  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(2)  Constant  care. 

(3)  Correct  temperature. — 

(a)  75°  F.  to  95°  F. 

(b)  Easily  killed  if  above  95°  F. 

(c)  Rises  too  slowly  if  below  75°  F. 

(d)  Need  of  thermometer. 

6.  The  Short  Process— 

(1)  Time:  four  to  six  hours. 

(2)  Compressed  yeast  used. 

(3)  Proportions  for  one  loaf — 

(a)  Milk  or  water,  one  cupful.  Flour,  33^  cupfuls. 
Compressed  yeast  3^  cake.  Salt,  1  teaspoon- 
ful.  Sugar,  2  teaspoonfuls.  Fat,  1  teaspoon- 
ful. 

(4)  Milk  or  water  heated  to  95°  F. 

(5)  Put  warm  liquid  over  yeast  cake  to  soften. 

(6)  Balance  of  liquid  over  other  ingredients. 

(7)  Add  yeast  and  flour — Mix  on  board. 

(8)  Place  in  well  oiled  pan  in  water  at  100°  F. 

(9)  Bread  should  rise  until  double  its  bulk. 

(10)  Knead  from  three  to  five  minutes — Distribute  gas. 

(11)  Shape  loaf  and  put  in  oiled  pan. 

(12)  Bake  from  forty-five  minutes  to  one  hour. 

7.  The  Long  Process — 

(1)  Set  sponge  at  night — Keep  warm. 

(2)  Proportions  for  one  loaf — 

(a)  Milk  or  water,  1  cupful.  Flour,  33^^  cupfuls. 
Yeast,  34  cake.  Salt,  1  teaspoonful.  Sugar, 
2  teaspoonfuls.     Fat,  1  teaspoonful. 

(3)  Proceed  as  in  short  method. 

8.  Homemade  Yeast — 

(1)  Boiling  water,   one  cupful.     Flour,   4  teaspoonfuls. 
Sugar,  1  teaspoonful.     Yeast,  1  cake. 


OTHER  BOOKLETS  127 

(2)  Mix  flour  with  boiling  potato  water. 

(3)  Add  one  fourth  of  a  cup  of  mashed  potato,  and  sugar. 

(4)  Add  yeast  cake  and  one  half  of  a  cup  of  water  at 

75°  F. 

(5)  Let  stand  twenty-four  hours — Stit. 

9.     Score  Card  for  Judging — 
(1)  Total  hundred  points — 

(a)  General  appearance — Twenty  points. 

(b)  Flavor — Odor  and  taste,  thirty-five  points. 

(c)  Lightness — Yeast  killed,  fifteen  points. 

(d)  Crumb — Texture,  color,  grain,  thirty  points. 

REFERENCES 

Domestic  Science :  Principles  and  Application  by  Bailey,  Chemistry 
of  Bread  Making  by  Grant,  and  almost  all  standard  works  on  this  sub- 
ject. 


CHAPTER  VII 
OTHER  BOOKLETS  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

These  are  other  topics  of  sufficient  interest  for  booklet 
work  that  do  not  come  under  any  of  the  preceding  chapters. 
A  few  are  suggested  : 

Good  Roads,  Cement  and  Its  Uses  on  the  Farm,  Pre- 
servatives for  Wood,  Tools  and  Their  Uses,  Drainage,  Taxes, 
The  Resources  of  Our  State,  Imports  and  Exports  of  the 
United  States,  The  American  School  System,  The  Modern 
Home,  Farming  as  a  Business,  Patent  Medicines,  The  Value 
of  Farmers'  Clubs,  Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools,  Indus- 
trial Contests,  Our  Trees  and  Woods,  and  Railroads. 

WOOD  PRESERVATIVES  AND  SUBSTITUTES 

The  high  cost  of  lumber  and  fence  posts  has  made  the 
use  of  wood  preservatives  necessary.  Of  course  we  all 
know  that  paint  both  preserves  and  beautifies  wood.  It  is 
only  recently,  however,  that  timbers,  poles,  posts,  and  rail- 
road ties  have  been  treated  with  some  kind  of  preservative. 
Iron,  cement  and  other  materials  are  being  substituted  for 
wood.  Do  you  know  why  a  fence  post  rots  off  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  when  the  parts  above  and  below  may  be 
sound? 

1.  Causes  of  Decay  of  Wood — 

(1)  Weathering — Water,  wind,  etc. 

(2)  Fungi — Small  plant  organisms. 

2.  Increase  in  Cost  of  Wood — 
(1)  Lumber — 

(a)  Scarcity  in  many  parts  of  country. 

(b)  Some  kinds  can  no  longer  be  obtained. 

128 


OTHER  BOOKLETS 


129 


(2)  Posts— 

(a)  Scarcity  of  timber. 

(b)  Great  demand — Fencing,  railroads,  telephone. 

3.  More  Profitable  to  Preserve  Wood — 

(1)  Than  to  buy  new  material. 

(2)  Than  to  use  other  materials  than  wood. 

4.  Paints — 

(1)  How  made — White  lead,  oil,  coloring. 

(2)  For  houses — Outside. 

(3)  For  other  buildings — Cheaper  grade. 

(4)  Inside  paints — How  different. 

(5)  Cost — Always  cheaper  to  paint  than  not  to. 

5.  Varnishes — 

(1)  How  made — Shellac,  wood  filler,  etc. 

(2)  For  carriages,  automobiles,  etc. 

(3)  Indoor  varnishes. 

(4)  For  furniture. 

(5)  For  floors. 

6.  Oil  and  Wax— 

(1)  For  floors. 

(2)  For  furniture. 

(3)  Other  uses. 

7.  Preservatives 

Posts — 

(1)  Cause    of    rot 
base — 

(a)  Dampness. 

(b)  Soil  bacteria. 

(2)  Substitutes  for  wooden  posts — 

(a)  Iron — Too  expensive. 

(b)  Cement — Limited  to  soil  without  alkali. 


Figure  70.     Cement  fence  posts. 


130'  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(3)  Durability  of  posts  depends  upon — 

(a)  Kind  of  wood. 

(b)  Rate  of  growth. 

(c)  Age  of  tree. 

(d)  How  seasoned. 

(4)  Prevention  of  rot — 

(a)  Exclude  air  and  moisture. 

(b)  Poison  wood  and  kill  fungi. 

(5)  Old  methods— 

(a)  Charring — Good,  but  takes  time. 

(b)  Whitewash — Not  durable. 

(c)  Paint — Ground  moisture  softens  it. 

(d)  Coal  tar — Applied  with  brush. 

(e)  Poisoning  post  at  ground — Dangerous. 

(6)  Other  methods — 

(a)  Mineral   salts — Zinc   chloride,    copper   sulphate, 

bichloride    of   mercury.     Objections    to    these 
are  that  they  are  washed  out  by  rains. 

(b)  Heavy  oils — Coal  tar  and  petroleum.     These  are 

best. 

8.    The  Creosote  Preservative — 

(1)  The  pressure  process — 

(a)  Used  in  railroad  ties,  timbers,  etc. 

(b)  Requires  expensive  apparatus. 

(2)  The  non-pressure  process — Open  tank — 

(a)  Small  portable  tank. 

(b)  Plant  not  very  expensive. 

(c)  Dry,  soft  wood  posts  used. 

(d)  Cost  of  treatment — Seven  to  ten  cents. 

(e)  Posts  last  twenty  to  thirty  years. 

(f)  Cheapest  kind  of  post  in  long  run. 

(g)  Makes  cottonwood  as  effective  as  red  cedar. 


OTHER  BOOKLETS 


131 


GOOD  ROADS 

Every  young  person  should  become  interested  in  the 
good  road  movement.  There  is  nothing  more  helpful  to  a 
community  than  good  roads,  and  nothing  more  detrimental 
to  it  than  bad  roads.  Road  making  is  a  science  and  should 
be  done  only  under  the  direction  of  competent  engineers. 
The  upkeep,  however,  should  be  assumed  by  the  local 
authorities.  Learn  the  use  of  the  road  drag.  Watch  it 
work  and  note  the  results  after  a  rain. 

1.  History  of  Good  Road  Movement — 

(1)  In  Europe — 

(a)  Famous  roads  in  history. 

(2)  In  the  United  States— 

(a)  Bicycles  and  automobiles — Influences. 

2.  Good  Roads  Cheaper  Than  Poor — 

(1)  Poor  roads  always  need  repairs. 

(2)  Comparison  of  loads  hauled  over  each. 


Figure  71.     A  very  bad  road. 


132 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


3.  Road  Construction — 

(1)  Under  direction  of  competent  engineer — 

(a)  The  ^'pathmaster'^  not  ordinarily  qualified. 

(b)  Has  made  special  study  of  this  work. 

(2)  Laid  out  as  straight  as  possible — 

(a)  In  the  middle  West  usually  one  mile  apart. 

(3)  The  roadbed— 

(a)  Well  graded  and  rounded. 

(b)  No  sods  left  in  roadbed. 

(c)  Ditches  at  sides  for  drainage. 

(d)  Proper  grade  established. 

(4)  Surfacing — 

(a)  With  top  soil  in  sandy  regions. 

(b)  With  sand  or  gravel  in  clay  soils. 

(c)  Gravel  or  crushed  rock — Best. 

4.  Care  of  Roads — 

(1)  Road  over- 
seers. 

(2)  Use  of  split 
log  drag. 

(3)  Ordinary 

^'road  work'' 
not  well 
done. 

(4)  Contracting 
for  upkeep  a 
better  plan. 

5.  Classes  of  Roads 
(1)  National 

highways — 

(a)  The  Cumberland  road. 

(b)  In  national  parks. 


Figure  72.     The  split  log  drag 


OTHER  BOOKLETS  133 

(2)  State  roads — 

(a)  State  Highway  Commission. 

(b)  Jurisdiction  and  duties. 

(3)  County  roads — 

(a)  County  commissioners. 

(b)  Jurisdiction  and  duties. 

(4)  Township  roads — 

(a)  Supervisors. 

(b)  Jurisdiction  and  duties. 

6.     Road  Maintenance — 

(1)  State  aid  for  state  roads — 

(a)  How  is  work  done? 

(b)  What  constitutes  a  state  road? 

(2)  County  road  and  bridge  fund — 

(a)  Direct  tax  in  each  county. 

(b)  Levied  by  commissioners  usually. 

(c)  Where  and  how  spent. 

(3)  Town  road  and  bridge  fund — 

(a)  Direct  tax  in  each  township. 

(b)  How  administered. 

DRAINAGE 

The  modern  business  farmer  has  learned  that  it  is  often 
cheaper  and  wiser  to  drain  some  of  the  land  he  already  has 
rather  than  to  buy  more  land.  Drainage  is  one  of  the  per- 
manent improvements  on  the  farm.  The  results  will 
usually  pay  for  the  extra  cost  in  a  short  time.  If  you  will 
make  a  plat  or  chart  of  your  farm,  or  some  other,  and  bring 
it  for  class  discussion  of  drainage,  some  interesting  facts 
may  be  learned.  Find  out  the  cost  and  results  of  drainage 
on  some  of  the  farms  in  the  neighborhood. 


134 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


Figure  73.      A  field  in  need  of  drainage. 


3. 


Improvements — 

(1)  Temporary — 

(a)  Fencing. 

(b)  Buildings. 

(2)  More  permanent — 

(a)  Drainage. 

(b)  Irrigation. 

Drainage  Cheaper  Than  More  Land — 

(1)  Drained  land  is  the  richest  land. 

(2)  Drained  for  twenty  to  thirty  dollars  an  acre. 

(3)  Intensive,  not  extensive,  farming  pays. 

Open  Ditches — 

(1)  Necessary  where  large  areas  are  low. 

(2)  Land  not  wasted  when  used  for  these — 


OTHER  BOOKLETS 


135 


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(a)  Adjoining 
land  more  pro- 
ductive. 

(b)  All  can  be 
cultivated. 

4.  Planning    Drain- 
age Systems — 

(1)  Land  surveyed 

(2)  Maps  platted. 

(3)  The  lay  of  the 
land. 

5.  Construction — 

(1)  The  *^fair^— 
(a)  The  water 

runs  by  grav- 
ity. 

(2)  Proper    depth 
and  width. 

.  Figure  74.      Open  ditch  used  to  lower  level  of  a 

(3)  Competent  lake  and  water  table  in  the  land . 

drainage  engineer — 

(a)  It  doesn't  pay  to  ''guess''  about  tile. 

6.  Kinds  of  Drainage — 
(1)  Open  ditches — 

(a)  Remove  surface  water. 

(b)  Cheaply  constructed. 

(c)  Use  plow  and  scraper. 

(d)  Rains  will  show  where  needed. 


(2)  Underdrainage 

(a)  Permanent,  and  gives  best  results. 

(b)  More  expensive — Cost  of  tile. 

(c)  Stones  sometimes  used. 


136 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


(d)  Tiling  best. 

(e)  How  the 
tile  works. 

(f)  Size  of  tile 
—  Depends 
upon  surface 
conditions, 
grade,  and 
depth. 

7.  Tools  Used— 

(1)  The  level  and 
stakes — 

(a)  Running 
lines  and  fix- 
ing grades. 

(2)  Skeleton  spade, 

long    handled 

shovel      so  lid  Figure  75.     Putting  in  tile  drainage. 

spade,  tile  scoop,  tile  hook. 

8.  Laying  the  Tile — 

(1)  Begin  at  outlet  and  lay  up  stream. 

(2)  Care  of  laterals — Connections. 

(3)  Blinding — Covering,  to  hold  in  place. 

(4)  Protection  for  outlet — Screen,  box. 

(5)  Filling  the  trenches. 

9.  Conclusion — 

(1)  Examples  of  profitable  drainage. 

REFERENCES 

Agricultural  Engineering  by  Davidson,  Farm  Drainage  by  French, 
Engineering  for  Land  Drainage  by  Elliott,  and  Practical  Farm  Drainage 
by  Elliott. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRY  FARMING 

An  authority  makes  the  statement  that  two  fifths  of 
the  area  of  the  United  States  is  too  dry  to  produce  good 
crops  without  some  form  of  artificial  aid.     Much  of  this 


OTHER  BOOKLETS 


137 


vast  area  is  very  fertile,  as  the  plant  foods  have  not  been 
washed  away  by  heavy  rainfall.  Any  means  by  which 
these  regions  can  be  made  to  produce  even  fair  yields  will 
be  of  great  importance  to  the  nation. 

Thus  far  irrigation  and  dry  farming  have  proved  their 
effectiveness  in  reclaiming  limited  areas,  by  producing  enor- 
mous crops  on  lands  previously  regarded  as  worthless. 
Only  about  two  million  acres  have  been  irrigated  so  far,  or 
about  one  thousandth  part  of  the  dry  region.  It  can  easily 
be  seen  what  the  reclamation  of  the  rest  of  this  land  would 
mean  to  the  West,  and  that  a  special  study  of  this  important 
phase  of  agriculture  should  be  made  by  the  rising  generation. 

The  Unites  States 
government  has  en- 
couraged the  move- 
ment by  spending 
millions  of  dollars  in 
constructing  large 
reservoirs  to  irrigate 
the  lands  in  certain 
areas.  This  work  has 
been  done  at  a  cost 
of  about  eighteen  dol- 
lars an  acre.  The 
land  is  sold  to  settlers 
and  the  money  used 
as  a  circulating  fund 
to  carry  on  the  work. 
The  plan  is  commend- 
able, and  fourteen 
states  have  been 
aided. 

In  certain  sec- 
tions, where  it  has  not 

,1  Mix  Ficure  76.     No  mulch — no  moisture.  Crop  a 

yet    been  possible  to         ^  failure. 


138 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 


irrigate,  a  method  of 
cultivation  known  as 
dry  farming  has  been 
used  with  excellent  re- 
sults. This  method 
has  used  the  principles 
of  the  conservation  of 
moisture  in  the  soil, 
by  the  dust  mulch  and 
by  fallowing.  In  some 
sections  crops  are  pro- 
duced every  year;  in 
others,  every  other 
year;  and  in  still  oth- 
ers, two  crops  in  three 
years.  Larger  areas 
can  be  cultivated  with 
the  same  capital  and 
labor  than  in  the  hu- 
mid regions  of  heavy 
soil.  A  common 
practice  is  to  keep  one 
half  of  the  land  under 

cultivation,  preserving  the  dust  blanket  and  holding  the 
moisture  while  the  other  half  produces  a  crop.  It  is  not 
uncommon  for  a  farmer  to  have  a  quarter  section  of  crop 
and  another  quarter  section  in  fallow,  with  little  or  no 
more  labor  than  would  be  required  for  the  one  quarter  in 
the  heavy  soils  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  In  this  way 
dry  farming  has  already  become  a  paying  industry  and 
its  possibilities  in  the  great  West  are  practically  unlimited. 


Figure  77.     Notice  dust  mulch.     Dark  portion 
beneath  shows  moist  soil. 


1.     Necessity  for  Irrigation — 
(1)  General  causes  of  dry  areas- 
(a)  Prevailing  winds. 


OTHER  BOOKLETS        '  139 

(b)  Local  conditions. 

(c)  Other  causes. 

(2)  Greater  food  production  necessary — 

(a)  As  world's  population  increases. 

(b)  As  tillable  lands  are  settled  up. 

2.  History  of  Irrigation— 

(1)  Ancient — 

(a)  Thousands  of  years  B.  C. 

(b)  In  Oriental  countries. 

(c)  Primitive  methods. 

(2)  Modern— 

(a)  In  India — large  areas. 

(b)  In  Egypt. 

(c)  In  Italy. 

(d)  In  other  countries. 

3.  Methods  Used  in  Irrigation— 

(1)  Surface  irrigation — 

(a)  Water  from  lakes  and  streams. 

(b)  From  reservoirs. 

(c)  Other  sources. 

(2)  Subirrigation — 

(a)  By  natural  means — Undercurrents. 

(b)  By  artificial  means — Tiling,  etc. 

(3)  Overhead  irrigation — 

(a)  Used  in  smaller  areas. 

(b)  Fruit  lands. 

(c)  Market  gardening. 

(d)  Mechanical  devices — Engines,  piping,  etc. 

(e)  Special  systems. 

(4)  Other  methods  of  irrigation. 
4:.     Irrigation  in  the  United  States — 

(1)  Arid  regions — 

(a)  Definition — Less  than  twenty  inches  of  rainfall. 


140  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKLETS 

(b)  Where,  in  the  United  States. 

(2)  Semi-arid  regions — 

(a)  Definition — Twenty  to  thirty  inches  of  rainfall. 

(b)  Where,  in  the  United  States. 

(3)  Humid  regions- 

(a)  Definition — More  than  thirty  inches  of  rainfall. 

(b)  Where,  in  the  United  States. 

(4)  Government  projects — 

(a)  Reclamation  Act. 

(b)  State  projects. 

(c)  Government  reservoirs. 

(5)  Cost  of  irrigation — 

(a)  Millions  spent  by  the  government. 

(b)  Eighteen  dollars  an  acre  for  the  government  pro- 

jects in  the  West. 

(c)  Plan  of  selling  to  settlers  to  reduce  cost. 

(d)  Overhead  systems  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  dol- 

lars an  acre. 

5.     Results  of  Irrigation — 

(1)  Large  areas  reclaimed — 

(a)  Where? 

(b)  Amount. 

(2)  Value  of  products  from  irrigated  lands — 

(a)  In  general. 

(b)  Yields  per  acre. 

(3)  Other  results — 
5.     ''Dry''  Farming — 

(1)  Meaning  of  the  term — 

(a)  Conservation  of  moisture. 

(2)  Reasons  for  dry  farming — 

(a)  Not  enough  moisture  to  crop  annually. 

(b)  Good  crops  raised  by  this  method. 

(c)  Demand  for  agricultural  products  increasing. 


OTHER  BOOKLETS  141 

(d)  No  opportunity  for  irrigation . 

(3)  Methods  used- 

(a)  Cultivation  and  tillage — Seed  sown  deep. 

(b)  Crops  seeded — Thin  stand  of  grain. 

(c)  Frequency  of  crops. 

(d)  Portion  of  land  cropped  annually. 

(4)  Character  of  the  soil — 

(a)  Sandy  soils — Water  too  deep  to  be  available. 

(b)  Clay  soils — Water  runs  off  before  penetrating. 

(c)  Loams — Best  for  dry  farming. 

(d)  Humus — Greatly  assists  in  conserving  the  mois- 

ture. 

(e)  'Taulty''  soils — Sand  or  gravel  in  subsoil;  difficult 

to  retain  moisture. 

(5)  Suitable  crops  for  dry  farming — 

(a)  Early  growth  during  period  of  greatest  rainfall — 

Small  grains,  especially  winter  wheat  and  rye. 

(b)  Most  efficient  use  of  moisture — Corn,  milo  maize, 

and  alfalfa  are  best. 

(6)  Results  of  dry  farming — 

(a)  Permanent  results  still  uncertain. 

(b)  Over  two  million  acres  in  basin  of  Columbia  River 

under  cultivation. 

(c)  Good  crops  grown  in  localities  with  only  ten  or 

twelve  inches  of  rainfall. 

(d)  Successful  for  nearly  fifty  years  in  some  parts  of 

West — Probably  will  be  indefinitely. 


Agricultural  Text  Books 

FOR 

HIGH  SCHOOLS 

This  series  of  agricultural  books,  of  which  "Field  Crops"  is  a  representative, 
is  planned  especially  for  high  schools  in  which  agriculture  is  taught.      The  books  con- 
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agricultural  high  schools  and  of  short  courses  in  schools  and  colleges. 
Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  by  Chas.  S.  Plumb,  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry, 
University  of  Ohio,  and  Autlior  of  "Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,"  "Indian  Corn 
Culture,"  etc,     Tliis  is  tlie  first  volume  prepared  on  tlie  subject  of  Animal  Husbandry 
that  is  particularly  adapted  to  agricultural  students  of  high  school  grade.     Professor  Plumb 
has  long  been  known  as  one  of  the  leading  instructors  and  investigators  in  the  Animai 
Husbandry  field,  as  a  judjje  of  live  stock,  and  as  a  clear  thinker  and  interesting  writer  on 
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Among  the  important  subjects  discussed  are:  The  Importance  of  Animal  Husbandry; 
Breeds  of  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine;  Animal  Type  ana  its  Importance;  Reasons  and 
Methods  of  Judging  Live  Stock;  Points  of  the  Horse;  Judging  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  Swine, 
etc.;  Heredity:  Its  Meaning  and  Influence;  Selection  and  Its  Importance;  Pedigrees  and 
Their  Value;  Suggestions  to  Young  Breeders;  Composition  of  Plants  and  Animals;  Influence 
of  Foods  on  the  Body;  Feeding  Standards,  Origin  and  Use;  How  to  Calculate  a  Ration; 
Coarse  Feeds  and  Their  Values;  Concentrated  Feed  and  Their  Value;  Care  of  Farm  Animals, 
Poultry:  Types  and  Breeds,  Judging,  Feeding;  Eggs  and  Incubation;  Poultry  Houses. 

This  is  a  book  of  393  pages,  216  illustrations,  well  printed  and  durably  bound.  Price 
$1.25  net. 
Soils  and  Soil  Fertility,  by  A.  R.  Whitson,  Professor  of  Soils,  University  of  Wisconsin,  and 
H.  L.  Walster,  Instructor  of  Soils,  University  of  Wisconsin.  This  Is  a  book  especially 
prepared  as  a  text  book  on  the  subject  of  Soils  for  high  school  courses  in  agriculture  and  short 
courses  in  colleges.  There  are  chapters  on  the  following  subjects:  Conditions  Essential 
to  Plant  Growth,  Origin  and  Classification  of  Soils;  Primary  Relations  of  Soil  and  Plant; 
Nitrogen;  Phosphorus  and  Potash;  Soil  Analyses;  Farm  Manures;  Commercial  Fertilizers; 
Physical  Properties  of  Soils;  Water  Supply;  Temperature  and  Ventilation  of  Soils;  Drain- 
age; Erosion;  Tillage;  Humus;  Relation  of  Crops  to  Climate  and  Soils;  Soils  of  the  United 
States;  Management  of  Important  Types  of  Soils;  Dry  Farming.  The  explicit  language  of 
this  book  and  the  avoidance  of  complicating  scientific  data  and  technical  terms  make  it  well 
within  the  comprehension  of  young  students.  They  will  find  in  it  a  fascinating  study  of 
soils  and  the  practical  ways  of  handling  land  to  produce  good  crops,  A  well-chosen  set 
of  laboratory  exercises  and  demonstrations,  with  complete  directions,  is  also  included. 
These  are  simple,  easily  carried  out,  and  are  fundamental.  The  book  has  315  pages,  well 
Illustrated,  printed  on  high-grade  paper,  bound  durably  in  cloth.  Price,  $1.25  net. 
Agricultural  Engineering,  by  J.  B,  Davidson,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Engineering,  Iowa 
State  College,  and  Joint  Author  of  "Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors."  A  practical 
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entirely  within  the  comprehension  of  the  young. 

Among  the  subjects  discussed  are:  Agricultural  Surveying,  Drainage,  Irrigation,  Road 
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Every  effort  has  been  made  by  authors  and  publishers  to  make  these  books 
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Send  aU  orders  to  WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY,  Saint  Paul,  Minnesota 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

By  SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  late  Professor  of  Horticulture  and  Forestry, 
University  of  Minnesota. 


252  pages,  profusely  illustrated,  cloth,  $1,00, 

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DAIRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

By  G.  L.  MARTIN,  Professor  of  Dairying,  North  Dakota  Agricultural 

College. 


140  pages,  illustrated,  cloth,  50c. 


This  laboratory  manual  offers  a  carefully  organized  series  of  exer- 
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SILOS:  CONSTRUCTION  AND  SERVICE 

By  M.  L.  KING,  formerly  Silo  Expert,  Iowa  State  College,  and  Orig- 
inator of  the  Iowa  Silo. 


100  pages,  well  illustrated,  cloth,  50c. 


There  is  no  recent  American  book  on  silo  building,  and  none  of 
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RULES  OF  ORDER  FOR  EVERY  DAY  USE 

AND  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  MADE  PLAIN 

By  HENRY  SLADE  GOFF,  Author  of  the  GoT».  Historical  Maps. 


113  pages,  illustrated,  cloth,  50c., 


There  has  long  been  a  demand  for  an  accurate  Rules  of  Order  text 
that  was  brief  yet  sufficiently  complete  for  all  practical  needs.  This 
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be  delighted  with  it.  The  book  also  presents  the  main  points  of  civil 
government  that  everyone  ought  to  know. 


YB  35300 


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